en to en_AU translation catalogue (23 entries)

note: Arabic (Al-Sufi) sky culture introduction section in markdown format
en: The Book of Fixed Stars was written shortly before 964 AD. Dr. Paul Kunitzsch described it as "the most outstanding among the works of the prominent astronomer Abu 'l-Ḥusayn 'Abd al-Raḥmān ibn 'Umar al-Şūfi (born in Rayy, 903; died 986), referred to as al-Sufi. In it, al-Şūfī treats the 48 classical constellations, which were established and transmitted in Ptolemy's Almagest. The description of each constellation comprises the following four sections: first, a general discussion of the constellation and its individual stars; this section also includes alŞūfi's criticism of the Ptolemaic tradition and notices of his own observations. Second, a record of the indigenous Arabic star names falling under that constellation, and the exact identification of the respective stars with the corresponding Ptolemaic stars. Third, two drawings of the constellation, one as it is seen on a celestial globe, and the other one as it is seen in the sky. Fourth, a table of the stars making up that constellation, giving a verbal description of each star's location and its longitude, latitude, and magnitude. This table closely follows the arrangement of Ptolemy's star catalogue in the Almagest." [#1]. In addition to the four sections of each constellation mentioned by dr. Kunitzsch, Al-Sufi would identify stars within the 6 magnitudes that were neglected by Ptolemy, but he did not catalogue them and was faithful to Ptolemy star catalog.
en_AU: The Book of Fixed Stars was written shortly before 964 AD. Dr. Paul Kunitzsch described it as "the most outstanding among the works of the prominent astronomer Abu 'l-Ḥusayn 'Abd al-Raḥmān ibn 'Umar al-Şūfi (born in Rayy, 903; died 986), referred to as al-Sufi. In it, al-Şūfī treats the 48 classical constellations, which were established and transmitted in Ptolemy's Almagest. The description of each constellation comprises the following four sections: first, a general discussion of the constellation and its individual stars; this section also includes alŞūfi's criticism of the Ptolemaic tradition and notices of his own observations. Second, a record of the indigenous Arabic star names falling under that constellation, and the exact identification of the respective stars with the corresponding Ptolemaic stars. Third, two drawings of the constellation, one as it is seen on a celestial globe, and the other one as it is seen in the sky. Fourth, a table of the stars making up that constellation, giving a verbal description of each star's location and its longitude, latitude, and magnitude. This table closely follows the arrangement of Ptolemy's star catalogue in the Almagest." [#1]. In addition to the four sections of each constellation mentioned by dr. Kunitzsch, Al-Sufi would identify stars within the 6 magnitudes that were neglected by Ptolemy, but he did not catalogue them and was faithful to Ptolemy star catalogue.

note: Arabic (Al-Sufi) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: An important aspect of the general discussion section is Al-Sufi method of facilitating the star identification. He describes each individual star in more than way: By the star position related to the constellation figure, by its magnitude, by the asterism it forms with other stars like triangle or arc shapes, sometimes by the star position related to the Milky way, and by the angular distance from a close by star. I have counted more than 700 angular distances measured by al-Sufi in his book. The units he uses for angular distances are cubits, spear length, man-height, span, and finger. Al-Sufi explicitly said in his book that a cubit is equal to two degrees and 20 minutes [#2]. For the other units, Schjellerup concluded some values, but tracking the 700 measurements, I came up with different values. The following table summarizes the units and relationship to the cubit value from Schjellerup[#3] and from my research.
    
    ### Angular distance units used by Al-Sufi
    
    <table>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>&nbsp;</notr></td>
    	<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><b>Schjellerup</b></td>
    	<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><b>Khalid</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><b>unit</b></td>
    	<td><b>cubits</b></td>
    	<td><b>Angular Value</b></td>
    	<td><b>cubits</b></td>
    	<td><b>Angular Value</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>spear</td>
    	<td>6 cubits</td>
    	<td><notr>14°</notr></td>
    	<td>6 cubits</td>
    	<td><notr>14°</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>Man-Height</td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>3 cubits</td>
    	<td><notr>7°</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>cubit</td>
    	<td>1 cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>2°20'</notr></td>
    	<td>1 cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>2°20'</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>span</td>
    	<td>1/3 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>47'</notr></td>
    	<td>1/2 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>1°10'</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>finger</td>
    	<td>1/32 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>4.4'</notr></td>
    	<td>1/16 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>8.75'</notr></td>
    </tr>
    </table>
    
    Another important aspect of Al-Sufi book is his record of the indigenous Arabic star names falling under each constellation, and the exact identification of the respective stars with the corresponding Ptolemaic stars. This means that we are looking at two layers of stars knowledge at the same time: the Ptolemaic one and the indigenous Arab one.
    
    ### The Sky Culture
    
    This sky culture is a result of a research done on several manuscripts of the book, oldest of which is the [#8].
    
    First, the manuscripts of the Book of Fixed Stars were critically edited, and the text was produced. Second, each member star of the 48 constellations was identified according to Al-Sufi description, and new tables were built including modern star designations from the Hipparcos, Bright stars, and Bayer catalogues. Third, Arab indigenous star names were collected and identified as mapped by Al-Sufi to the Ptolemaic ones. All the previous steps were included in a book published digitally of the Book of Fixed Stars plus explanations and commentary by Khalid Al-Ajaji[#4].
    
    The sky culture stick figures of the constellations are the images in the Ulugh Beg manuscript of the Book of Fixed Stars, extracted, and adapted for Stellarium by Mr. Kutaibaa Akraa [#5]. The star names file includes the star number in the constellation as the primary star name and the description of the star in the tables as a secondary name. For example, Polaris primary name that is displayed with the star is: UMi1, UMi being Ursa Minor and 1 is the first star of this constellation. If the star is selected other secondary names are displayed, which will display "The star on the end of the tail" on the top of the screen. The constellation lines are constructed according to the constellation shapes with an attempt to include most of the member stars. For indigenous Arab star knowledge, individual star names were added to the star file as secondary names, while names of group of stars were defined through asterism names and asterism lines files.
    
    The translation of star descriptions from Arabic into English was extracted from Ernie Wright website[#6] which was transcribed from Toomer's translation of the Almagest[#7]. The translation was modified in a few places to agree with Al-Sufi wording.
    
    The single source of the sky culture is the Book of Fixed Stars and the objective is to give a faithful representation of the book content.
en_AU: An important aspect of the general discussion section is Al-Sufi method of facilitating the star identification. He describes each individual star in more than way: By the star position related to the constellation figure, by its magnitude, by the asterism it forms with other stars like triangle or arc shapes, sometimes by the star position related to the Milky way, and by the angular distance from a close by star. I have counted more than 700 angular distances measured by al-Sufi in his book. The units he uses for angular distances are cubits, spear length, man-height, span, and finger. Al-Sufi explicitly said in his book that a cubit is equal to two degrees and 20 minutes [#2]. For the other units, Schjellerup concluded some values, but tracking the 700 measurements, I came up with different values. The following table summarises the units and relationship to the cubit value from Schjellerup[#3] and from my research.
    
    ### Angular distance units used by Al-Sufi
    
    <table>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>&nbsp;</notr></td>
    	<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><b>Schjellerup</b></td>
    	<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><b>Khalid</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><b>unit</b></td>
    	<td><b>cubits</b></td>
    	<td><b>Angular Value</b></td>
    	<td><b>cubits</b></td>
    	<td><b>Angular Value</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>spear</td>
    	<td>6 cubits</td>
    	<td><notr>14°</notr></td>
    	<td>6 cubits</td>
    	<td><notr>14°</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>Man-Height</td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>3 cubits</td>
    	<td><notr>7°</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>cubit</td>
    	<td>1 cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>2°20'</notr></td>
    	<td>1 cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>2°20'</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>span</td>
    	<td>1/3 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>47'</notr></td>
    	<td>1/2 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>1°10'</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td>finger</td>
    	<td>1/32 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>4.4'</notr></td>
    	<td>1/16 of a cubit</td>
    	<td><notr>8.75'</notr></td>
    </tr>
    </table>
    
    Another important aspect of Al-Sufi book is his record of the indigenous Arabic star names falling under each constellation, and the exact identification of the respective stars with the corresponding Ptolemaic stars. This means that we are looking at two layers of stars knowledge at the same time: the Ptolemaic one and the indigenous Arab one.
    
    ### The Sky Culture
    
    This sky culture is a result of a research done on several manuscripts of the book, oldest of which is the [#8].
    
    First, the manuscripts of the Book of Fixed Stars were critically edited, and the text was produced. Second, each member star of the 48 constellations was identified according to Al-Sufi description, and new tables were built including modern star designations from the Hipparcos, Bright stars, and Bayer catalogues. Third, Arab indigenous star names were collected and identified as mapped by Al-Sufi to the Ptolemaic ones. All the previous steps were included in a book published digitally of the Book of Fixed Stars plus explanations and commentary by Khalid Al-Ajaji[#4].
    
    The sky culture stick figures of the constellations are the images in the Ulugh Beg manuscript of the Book of Fixed Stars, extracted, and adapted for Stellarium by Mr. Kutaibaa Akraa [#5]. The star names file includes the star number in the constellation as the primary star name and the description of the star in the tables as a secondary name. For example, Polaris primary name that is displayed with the star is: UMi1, UMi being Ursa Minor and 1 is the first star of this constellation. If the star is selected other secondary names are displayed, which will display "The star on the end of the tail" on the top of the screen. The constellation lines are constructed according to the constellation shapes with an attempt to include most of the member stars. For indigenous Arab star knowledge, individual star names were added to the star file as secondary names, while names of group of stars were defined through asterism names and asterism lines files.
    
    The translation of star descriptions from Arabic into English was extracted from Ernie Wright website[#6] which was transcribed from Toomer's translation of the Almagest[#7]. The translation was modified in a few places to agree with Al-Sufi wording.
    
    The single source of the sky culture is the Book of Fixed Stars and the objective is to give a faithful representation of the book content.

note: Arabic (Al-Sufi) sky culture references section in markdown format
en:  - [#1]: The Arabs and the Stars, Paul Kunitzsch,The Astronomer Abu'L-Husayn Al-Sufi And His Book On The Constellations, XI, pg 57. Northampton [England]: Variorum Reprints, 1989.
     - [#2]: See Al-Sufi description in his book of the 14th star in Auriga.
     - [#3]: DESCRIPTIONS DES ETOILES FIXES, traduction littérale avec des notes par H C F C Schjellerup, St Petersbourg, 1874, pg 26-27.
     - [#4]: [Book of Fixed Stars: Critical edition with commentary by Khalid AlAjaji](https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1s6JXzftwjMQ5rgZoGE3718EtBLBZtjzr?usp=sharing).
     - [#5]: [Oulough Beg copy of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿUmar al-Ṣūfī. Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib al-ṯābita, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France Ms. Arabe 5036](https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60006156.r=.langEN).
     - [#6]: [Seeing Ancient Stars, Visualization of the Almagest Catalog](http://www.etwright.org/astro/almagest.html#cat).
     - [#7]: Ptolemy’s ALMAGEST, G. J. Toomer, Princeton University Press, 2nd ed., 1998.
     - [#8]: [Oxford, Bodleian Library Ms. Marsh 144 dated 1009 AD](https://iiif.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/iiif/viewer/c1caa84c-f6d2-483f-9eb4-2439cccdc801#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=25&r=0&xywh=-4815%2C-378%2C14782%2C7535)
en_AU:  - [#1]: The Arabs and the Stars, Paul Kunitzsch,The Astronomer Abu'L-Husayn Al-Sufi And His Book On The Constellations, XI, pg 57. Northampton [England]: Variorum Reprints, 1989.
     - [#2]: See Al-Sufi description in his book of the 14th star in Auriga.
     - [#3]: DESCRIPTIONS DES ETOILES FIXES, traduction littérale avec des notes par H C F C Schjellerup, St Petersbourg, 1874, pg 26-27.
     - [#4]: [Book of Fixed Stars: Critical edition with commentary by Khalid AlAjaji](https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1s6JXzftwjMQ5rgZoGE3718EtBLBZtjzr?usp=sharing).
     - [#5]: [Oulough Beg copy of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿUmar al-Ṣūfī. Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib al-ṯābita, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France Ms. Arabe 5036](https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b60006156.r=.langEN).
     - [#6]: [Seeing Ancient Stars, Visualisation of the Almagest Catalogue](http://www.etwright.org/astro/almagest.html#cat).
     - [#7]: Ptolemy’s ALMAGEST, G. J. Toomer, Princeton University Press, 2nd ed., 1998.
     - [#8]: [Oxford, Bodleian Library Ms. Marsh 144 dated 1009 AD](https://iiif.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/iiif/viewer/c1caa84c-f6d2-483f-9eb4-2439cccdc801#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=25&r=0&xywh=-4815%2C-378%2C14782%2C7535)

note: Babylonian (Seleucid) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: ### Single Stars
    
     <p>
     In contrast to constellations, there are much more lists of single stars preserved from the later epochs. We use this Late Babylonian or Seleucid sky culture to focus on the single star names. There are plenty of <i>ziqpu</i> lists (lists of culminating stars) and for measurements in the zodiac, "normal stars" have been introduced. Normal stars (from Latin "norma" = the measure) are a frame of reference for mathematical astrometry of the Late Babylonian epoch. While for most of the other stars the margin of error concerning their identification with a celestial counterpart is sometimes huge, the normal stars are identified properly because their coordinates can be derived from the planets standing next to them (Jones, 2004).
    </p>
    
    ### Source(s)
    
    <p>The lists of ziqpu stars and normal stars are mostly compiled from the modern compendium Hunger and Pingree: Astral Science in Mesopotamia, 1999 and some of the other papers given in "Further Reading". The book by Hoffmann, 2017 already contains several computations with these stars and more literature (e.g. Wayne Horowitz has worked on <i>ziqpu</i> stars for many years but is not mentioned here with a special paper although his translations contributed a lot for this study). A likely version of the Late Babylonian stick figures will be added in a later release of Stellarium.
    </p>
    <p>
    
    ### MUL.APIN constellations partially re-worked
    
    <table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" style="background: transparent">
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
    <td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
    <td>asterism</td>
    <td>our commentary</td>
    <td>position in the sky</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6;">
    <td><notr>1</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>EPINNU</i>(Plough)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Cas</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6;">
    <td><notr>2</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>BARBARU</i> (Wolf): seeder of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EPINNU</i></td>
    <td>"wolf" here does not mean the animal but a part of the plough.</td>
    <td><notr>&gamma; Cas (+?)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>3</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;&#298;BU</i>(Old Man)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Per</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>4</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>GAMLU</i>(Throwing-stick)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>in<notr> Aur</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>5</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>T&#362;'AM&#362;&middot;RAB&Ucirc;TU</i>(Great Twins)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Gem</notr></td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>6</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>T&#362;'AM&#362;&middot;&#7778;E&#7722;R&#362;TU</i>(Little Twins)</td>
    <td>do not exist anymore (merged with Great Twins) </td>
    <td><notr>Gem</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>7</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ALLUTTU</i>(Crab)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Cnc</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>8</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>URGUL&Ucirc;</i>(Lion)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Leo</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>9</notr></td>
    <td>STAR opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>URGUL&Ucirc;</i>: STAR (of the) King</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>Regulus</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>10</notr></td>
    <td>twinkling STARs in the tail of <sup>STAR</sup><i>URGUL&Ucirc;</i>: &quot;date-palm spadix&quot; (jewellery?) (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Erua</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Com</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>11</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>&Scaron;U.PA(The Bright?) = <sup>GOD</sup>Enlil</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Boo</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>12</notr></td>
    <td>STAR in front of it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>&#7722;ENGALL&#256;YU</i> (Abundant)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; Boo </notr>or<notr> &alpha; CVn</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>13</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>B&#256;&Scaron;TUM</i> (Dignity)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>CrB</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>14</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i> (Wagon)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>UMa</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>15</notr></td>
    <td>STAR by the pole of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;&#274;LEBU</i>(Fox)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>Alcor<notr> (80 UMa)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>16</notr></td>
    <td>STAR on the forehead of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>LA&#7722;RU</i>(Ewe)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; UMa (+)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>17</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>MU.BU.K&Eacute;&Scaron;.DA (Hitched yoke?)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>UMi</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>18</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>MAR.G&Iacute;D.DA.AN.NA (Wagon of heaven)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>somewhere betw UMi and Vega?</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>19</notr></td>
    <td>STAR in its bond: <sup>STAR</sup><i>APIL-EMA&#7722;</i> (Heir of the Ema&#7723;-temple)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; UMi (?)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>20</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i>(She-Goat)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Lyr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>21</notr></td>
    <td>STAR in front of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>KALBU</i>(Dog) [of Goddess Gula]</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>in<notr> Her</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>22</notr></td>
    <td>bright STAR of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; Lyr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>23</notr></td>
    <td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> behind it: <sup>GOD</sup>Nin-SAR and <sup>GOD</sup>Errakal</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&eta;, &theta; Lyr ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>24</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>nimru</i> (Panther)</td>
    <td>In Late Babylonian language ("dictionaries") a new reading of this constellation name appears: it should be interpreted as Akkadian word "nimru" translating to "the Panther"; the old demon at this place seems to have been replaced.</td>
    <td><notr>Cyg</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>25</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to the right of it: <sup>STAR</sup>&Scaron;<i>A&#7722;&Ucirc;</i> (Pig)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>26</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to the left of it: <sup>STARS</sup><i>SIS&Ucirc;</i> (Horse)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>27</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>LULIMMU</i> (Stag)</td>
    <td>We shifted the Stag to display another suggestion and because the Panther occupies different areas than the UKADUA demon. It is still uncertain but in this version the breast of the Stag includes M31 which could be the "Field Mouse". </td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>28</notr></td>
    <td>twinkling STAR<sup>s</sup> opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>LULIMMU</i>(Stag): <sup>GOD</sup>&#7722;arriru (Field Mouse)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>M31 ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6; color: #ff0000">
    <td></td>
    <td colspan="3">Path of <sup>GOD</sup>Enlil finished.</td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    </table>
    <table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1">
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
    <td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
    <td>asterism</td>
    <td>our commentary</td>
    <td>position in the sky</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>32</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>ONE&middot;&quot;FIELD&quot;(area measure)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Peg</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>33</notr></td>
    <td>STAR opposite <sup>STAR</sup>ONE&middot;'FIELD': <sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;IN&#362;NUTU</i>(Swallow)</td>
    <td>the southern one of the two ellipses of fish; in comparison to the earlier version a small constellation which shifted northwestwards</td>
    <td><notr>Psc</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>33 (a)</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZIBATI</i>(Tails)</td>
    <td>Since the Old Babylonian 'Great Swallow' turned into a small swallow and was shifted to another place, the V-shaped tails of the Great Swallow remained without any meaning. Still, they are used as constellation (Tails - but nobody knows of whom). Later, the V-shape was interpreted as a band connecting the little swallow with a little fish below the constellation of Anunitu.</td>
    <td><notr>Psc</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>34</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind <sup>STAR</sup>ONE&middot;'FIELD': <sup>STAR</sup><i>ANUNN&#298;TU</i></td>
    <td>Our stick figure is prepared to transform to the Greek Andromeda: Anunitu is another name for the Babylonian goddess of sexual love Ishtar who was equalized with Greek Aphrodite whose myth in Syria was connected to fish.</td>
    <td><notr>And</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>35</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>AGRU</i>(Hired Worker)</td>
    <td>Over centuries of abbreviation of the names of constellations, the Babylonian LU.HUN.GA transformed to HUN which is a sign similar to UDU (sheep). Therefore, the working man transformed to a sheep. This was likely a Babylonian wordplay only and therefore the constellation figure is not supposed to really look like a sheep.</td>
    <td><notr>Ari</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>36</notr></td>
    <td>STAR.STAR(<i>ZAPPU</i>, Bristle): <sup>GOD</sup>Sebettu</td>
    <td>Old Babylonian termed only "the Star Cluster", Middle Babylonian insists to equalize this with Sebettu (the Seven Gods, warriors) - reason unknown. Late Babylonian more often uses the term "the Bristle" on the neck of the Bull. This interpretation is equal to the Greek one.</td>
    <td>Pleiades</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>37</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>BULL&middot;OF&middot;HEAVEN(<i>AL&Ucirc;</i>) and <sup>GOD</sup><i>Is-l&ecirc;</i> (Jaw of the Wild Bull)</td>
    <td>The Bull of Heaven is a mythological figure from the epos of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh fights him and divides him in halves (which explains its depiction in the sky). The "Jaw" are the Hyades.</td>
    <td><notr>Tau </notr>and Hyades</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>38</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>TRUE&middot;SHEPHERD&middot;OF&middot;HEAVEN (<i>&Scaron;ITADDALLU</i>, Orion)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Ori</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>39</notr></td>
    <td>Twin STARs opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;ITADDALLU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&pi;<sub>3</sub>, &pi;<sub>4</sub> Ori ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>40</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>TARLUGALLU</i> (Cock)</td>
    <td>Normally, the Cock is identified with modern Lepus but this does not make any sense to me: "behind" Orion, i.e. rising after him is Prokyon, a very bright star without any known Babylonian name. The Greeks named him "pro kyon" (rising before the dog) because in some of the conquered cultures Prokyon was an indicator for the soon rising of Sirius (the dog star for them). Sirius was not a dog star in Babylonian sky culture but, however, important for the calendar. That is why, I suggest to take Prokyon for a crowing rooster, somehow announcing the brighter Sirius.</td>
    <td><notr>Lep (</notr>or<notr> &alpha; CMi ??)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>41</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>GAG.SI.S&Aacute; (Arrow)</td>
    <td>The depicted version is a suggestion. Sure is only Sirius, for the rest, there are multiple options.</td>
    <td>Sirius + </td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>42</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>QA&Scaron;TU</i> (Bow)</td>
    <td>I suppose, this is the mostly accepted version (out of several existing options).</td>
    <td>in<notr> CMa ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>43</notr></td>
    <td>STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>NIRA&#7722; (Snake-god)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Hya</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>44</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>&#256;RIBU</i> (Raven)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Crv</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>45</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i><sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;ala</i>, ear of grain</td>
    <td>The old constellation of the Furrow vanished and left the Maiden (goddess &Scaron;ala) instead. The stable element is the 'ear of grain' as name for the brightest star (Greek Stachys, Latin Spica).</td>
    <td><notr>Vir</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>46</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZIB&#256;N&#298;TU</i>(Scales)</td>
    <td>Since MUL.APIN identifies the Scales with a part (horns) of the Scorpion this constellation vanished in early Greek astronomy and re-appeared only in early Roman times (Almagest and thereafter). We think, that the earlier versions of the Scales should have been a separate constellation and not part of the Scorpion. That's why, we turned it around 180° because in the Babylonian sky culture Virgo (as Furrow as well as the Maiden &Scaron;ala) does not need so much space.</td>
    <td>circa Lib</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>47</notr></td>
    <td>STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Zababa</td>
    <td>Normally identified with the area of Ophiuchus. </td>
    <td><notr>Oph</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>48, 49</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ER&Ucirc;</i> (Eagle) and <sup>STAR</sup><i>PAGRU</i> (Corpse)</td>
    <td>The Eagle (Aql) is connected with a Corpse which reminds on the Almagest figure of the Eagle carrying dead Antinuos. It appears likely that the Eagle, in former times, had been a vulture because vultures are associated with dead bodies and eagles not and in Babylonian mythology an eagle carries preferably a living (not dead) man. Additionally, many early languages do not distinguish eagles and vultures. </td>
    <td><notr>Aql +</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6; color: #ff0000">
    <td></td>
    <td colspan="3">Path of Anum completed.</td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    </table>
    <table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1">
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
    <td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
    <td>asterism</td>
    <td>our commentary</td>
    <td>position in the sky</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>54</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>N&#362;NU</i>(Fish)</td>
    <td>Greek "the Great Fish" </td>
    <td><notr>PsA</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>55</notr></td>
    <td>GREAT&middot;STAR: <sup>GOD</sup>Ea</td>
    <td>The god of wisdom and witchcraft, Ea, is usually depicted with streams of water springing from his shoulders. For Babylonians this was a clear image of the springs of Euphrates and Tigris. Since this was not cler to the Greek, they named this figure simply "the Man with the Water" or "Water-Carrier".</td>
    <td><notr>Aqr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>56</notr></td>
    <td>STAR of (the city of) Eridu</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>Canopus<notr> (&alpha; Car)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>57</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to its right: STAR (of) <sup>&lt;GOD&gt;</sup>Ninma&#7723;</td>
    <td>Since Canopus is almost opposite Aquarius in the sky, it is unclear where this asterism is to be located.</td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>58</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>&#7722;AB(B)A&#7778;&#7778;&#274;R&#256;NU</i></td>
    <td>still unclear</td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>59</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to its right: <sup>STAR</sup><i>MA&Scaron;KAK&#256;TU</i>(Harrow), in the centre of which the Aps&ucirc; is visible</td>
    <td> still unclear - but maybe the Aps&ucirc; is the southernmost part of the Milky Way. </td>
    <td>in<notr> Vela (Aps&ucirc;~MW?)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>60</notr></td>
    <td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> behind it: <sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;ullat and <sup>GOD</sup>&#7722;ani&scaron;</td>
    <td>no hints, no clue</td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>61</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it which lights up like <sup>GOD</sup>Ea (and) sets like Ea: STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Numu&scaron;da</td>
    <td>should be an male anthropomorphous figure (a god)</td>
    <td><notr>Cen</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>62</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to the left of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQ&#298;PU</i> (Scorpion): <sup>STAR</sup><i>URIDIMMU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Lup</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>63</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQ&#298;PU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Sco</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>64</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>IRAT&middot;ZUQAQ&#298;PI<br/></i> (Breast of the Scorpion): <sup>GOD</sup>Lisin</td>
    <td>single star name</td>
    <td>Antares<notr> (&alpha; Sco)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>65</notr></td>
    <td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> on the sting (<i>ZIQTU</i>) of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQ&#298;PU</i>: <sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;arur and <sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;argaz</td>
    <td>Since &Scaron;argaz is an old term for the sting, this is almost clear and re-applied as official modern star name by the IAU 2016.</td>
    <td><notr>&lambda;, &nu; Sco</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>66</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind them: <sup>GOD</sup>Pabilsa&#285;</td>
    <td>The depiction of god Pabilsa&#285; is iconographically clear. It can easily be transformed to a Greek centaur (see Boll, 1903). </td>
    <td><notr>Sgr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>67, 68</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>MAKURRU</i> (Bark) (and?) <sup>STAR</sup><i>SU&#7722;URM&#256;&Scaron;U</i> (Goat-fish) </td>
    <td> Either the Bark was identified with the Goat-Fish implying that both terms designate the same constellation (esp. likely for Old Babylonian epochs before MUL.APIN, hypotheses published by Craig Crossen in Sky&Telescope). Alternatively (and esp. likely for later epochs) the Bark was shifted to the west, under the feet of Pabilsa&#285; (Sagittarius). That explains Eratosthenes's long debate on the illogial image of a centaur standing on a ship. In case The Bark was a standalone constellation, it should be identified with Ptolemy's Southern Crown (Corona Australis).</td>
    <td><notr>(CrA &amp;) Cap</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6;; color: #ff0000">
    <td></td>
    <td colspan="3">Path of <sup>GOD</sup>Ea completed.</td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    </table>
    </p>
en_AU: ### Single Stars
    
     <p>
     In contrast to constellations, there are much more lists of single stars preserved from the later epochs. We use this Late Babylonian or Seleucid sky culture to focus on the single star names. There are plenty of <i>ziqpu</i> lists (lists of culminating stars) and for measurements in the zodiac, "normal stars" have been introduced. Normal stars (from Latin "norma" = the measure) are a frame of reference for mathematical astrometry of the Late Babylonian epoch. While for most of the other stars the margin of error concerning their identification with a celestial counterpart is sometimes huge, the normal stars are identified properly because their coordinates can be derived from the planets standing next to them (Jones, 2004).
    </p>
    
    ### Source(s)
    
    <p>The lists of ziqpu stars and normal stars are mostly compiled from the modern compendium Hunger and Pingree: Astral Science in Mesopotamia, 1999 and some of the other papers given in "Further Reading". The book by Hoffmann, 2017 already contains several computations with these stars and more literature (e.g. Wayne Horowitz has worked on <i>ziqpu</i> stars for many years but is not mentioned here with a special paper although his translations contributed a lot for this study). A likely version of the Late Babylonian stick figures will be added in a later release of Stellarium.
    </p>
    <p>
    
    ### MUL.APIN constellations partially re-worked
    
    <table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" style="background: transparent">
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
    <td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
    <td>asterism</td>
    <td>our commentary</td>
    <td>position in the sky</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6;">
    <td><notr>1</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>EPINNU</i>(Plough)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Cas</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6;">
    <td><notr>2</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>BARBARU</i> (Wolf): seeder of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EPINNU</i></td>
    <td>"wolf" here does not mean the animal but a part of the plough.</td>
    <td><notr>&gamma; Cas (+?)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>3</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;&#298;BU</i>(Old Man)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Per</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>4</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>GAMLU</i>(Throwing-stick)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>in<notr> Aur</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>5</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>T&#362;'AM&#362;&middot;RAB&Ucirc;TU</i>(Great Twins)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Gem</notr></td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>6</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>T&#362;'AM&#362;&middot;&#7778;E&#7722;R&#362;TU</i>(Little Twins)</td>
    <td>do not exist anymore (merged with Great Twins) </td>
    <td><notr>Gem</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>7</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ALLUTTU</i>(Crab)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Cnc</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>8</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>URGUL&Ucirc;</i>(Lion)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Leo</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>9</notr></td>
    <td>STAR opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>URGUL&Ucirc;</i>: STAR (of the) King</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>Regulus</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>10</notr></td>
    <td>twinkling STARs in the tail of <sup>STAR</sup><i>URGUL&Ucirc;</i>: &quot;date-palm spadix&quot; (jewellery?) (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Erua</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Com</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>11</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>&Scaron;U.PA(The Bright?) = <sup>GOD</sup>Enlil</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Boo</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>12</notr></td>
    <td>STAR in front of it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>&#7722;ENGALL&#256;YU</i> (Abundant)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; Boo </notr>or<notr> &alpha; CVn</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>13</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>B&#256;&Scaron;TUM</i> (Dignity)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>CrB</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>14</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i> (Wagon)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>UMa</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>15</notr></td>
    <td>STAR by the pole of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;&#274;LEBU</i>(Fox)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>Alcor<notr> (80 UMa)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>16</notr></td>
    <td>STAR on the forehead of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>LA&#7722;RU</i>(Ewe)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; UMa (+)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>17</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>MU.BU.K&Eacute;&Scaron;.DA (Hitched yoke?)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>UMi</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>18</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>MAR.G&Iacute;D.DA.AN.NA (Wagon of heaven)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>somewhere betw UMi and Vega?</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>19</notr></td>
    <td>STAR in its bond: <sup>STAR</sup><i>APIL-EMA&#7722;</i> (Heir of the Ema&#7723;-temple)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; UMi (?)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>20</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i>(She-Goat)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Lyr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>21</notr></td>
    <td>STAR in front of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>KALBU</i>(Dog) [of Goddess Gula]</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>in<notr> Her</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>22</notr></td>
    <td>bright STAR of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&alpha; Lyr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>23</notr></td>
    <td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> behind it: <sup>GOD</sup>Nin-SAR and <sup>GOD</sup>Errakal</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&eta;, &theta; Lyr ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>24</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>nimru</i> (Panther)</td>
    <td>In Late Babylonian language ("dictionaries") a new reading of this constellation name appears: it should be interpreted as Akkadian word "nimru" translating to "the Panther"; the old demon at this place seems to have been replaced.</td>
    <td><notr>Cyg</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>25</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to the right of it: <sup>STAR</sup>&Scaron;<i>A&#7722;&Ucirc;</i> (Pig)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>26</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to the left of it: <sup>STARS</sup><i>SIS&Ucirc;</i> (Horse)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>27</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>LULIMMU</i> (Stag)</td>
    <td>We shifted the Stag to display another suggestion and because the Panther occupies different areas than the UKADUA demon. It is still uncertain but in this version the breast of the Stag includes M31 which could be the "Field Mouse". </td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>28</notr></td>
    <td>twinkling STAR<sup>s</sup> opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>LULIMMU</i>(Stag): <sup>GOD</sup>&#7722;arriru (Field Mouse)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>M31 ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6; color: #ff0000">
    <td></td>
    <td colspan="3">Path of <sup>GOD</sup>Enlil finished.</td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    </table>
    <table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1">
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
    <td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
    <td>asterism</td>
    <td>our commentary</td>
    <td>position in the sky</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>32</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>ONE&middot;&quot;FIELD&quot;(area measure)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Peg</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>33</notr></td>
    <td>STAR opposite <sup>STAR</sup>ONE&middot;'FIELD': <sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;IN&#362;NUTU</i>(Swallow)</td>
    <td>the southern one of the two ellipses of fish; in comparison to the earlier version a small constellation which shifted northwestwards</td>
    <td><notr>Psc</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>33 (a)</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZIBATI</i>(Tails)</td>
    <td>Since the Old Babylonian 'Great Swallow' turned into a small swallow and was shifted to another place, the V-shaped tails of the Great Swallow remained without any meaning. Still, they are used as constellation (Tails - but nobody knows of whom). Later, the V-shape was interpreted as a band connecting the little swallow with a little fish below the constellation of Anunitu.</td>
    <td><notr>Psc</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>34</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind <sup>STAR</sup>ONE&middot;'FIELD': <sup>STAR</sup><i>ANUNN&#298;TU</i></td>
    <td>Our stick figure is prepared to transform to the Greek Andromeda: Anunitu is another name for the Babylonian goddess of sexual love Ishtar who was equalised with Greek Aphrodite whose myth in Syria was connected to fish.</td>
    <td><notr>And</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>35</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>AGRU</i>(Hired Worker)</td>
    <td>Over centuries of abbreviation of the names of constellations, the Babylonian LU.HUN.GA transformed to HUN which is a sign similar to UDU (sheep). Therefore, the working man transformed to a sheep. This was likely a Babylonian wordplay only and therefore the constellation figure is not supposed to really look like a sheep.</td>
    <td><notr>Ari</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>36</notr></td>
    <td>STAR.STAR(<i>ZAPPU</i>, Bristle): <sup>GOD</sup>Sebettu</td>
    <td>Old Babylonian termed only "the Star Cluster", Middle Babylonian insists to equalise this with Sebettu (the Seven Gods, warriors) - reason unknown. Late Babylonian more often uses the term "the Bristle" on the neck of the Bull. This interpretation is equal to the Greek one.</td>
    <td>Pleiades</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>37</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>BULL&middot;OF&middot;HEAVEN(<i>AL&Ucirc;</i>) and <sup>GOD</sup><i>Is-l&ecirc;</i> (Jaw of the Wild Bull)</td>
    <td>The Bull of Heaven is a mythological figure from the epos of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh fights him and divides him in halves (which explains its depiction in the sky). The "Jaw" are the Hyades.</td>
    <td><notr>Tau </notr>and Hyades</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>38</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>TRUE&middot;SHEPHERD&middot;OF&middot;HEAVEN (<i>&Scaron;ITADDALLU</i>, Orion)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Ori</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>39</notr></td>
    <td>Twin STARs opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>&Scaron;ITADDALLU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>&pi;<sub>3</sub>, &pi;<sub>4</sub> Ori ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>40</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>TARLUGALLU</i> (Cock)</td>
    <td>Normally, the Cock is identified with modern Lepus but this does not make any sense to me: "behind" Orion, i.e. rising after him is Prokyon, a very bright star without any known Babylonian name. The Greeks named him "pro kyon" (rising before the dog) because in some of the conquered cultures Prokyon was an indicator for the soon rising of Sirius (the dog star for them). Sirius was not a dog star in Babylonian sky culture but, however, important for the calendar. That is why, I suggest to take Prokyon for a crowing rooster, somehow announcing the brighter Sirius.</td>
    <td><notr>Lep (</notr>or<notr> &alpha; CMi ??)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>41</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup>GAG.SI.S&Aacute; (Arrow)</td>
    <td>The depicted version is a suggestion. Sure is only Sirius, for the rest, there are multiple options.</td>
    <td>Sirius + </td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>42</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>QA&Scaron;TU</i> (Bow)</td>
    <td>I suppose, this is the mostly accepted version (out of several existing options).</td>
    <td>in<notr> CMa ?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>43</notr></td>
    <td>STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>NIRA&#7722; (Snake-god)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Hya</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>44</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>&#256;RIBU</i> (Raven)</td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Crv</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>45</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i><sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;ala</i>, ear of grain</td>
    <td>The old constellation of the Furrow vanished and left the Maiden (goddess &Scaron;ala) instead. The stable element is the 'ear of grain' as name for the brightest star (Greek Stachys, Latin Spica).</td>
    <td><notr>Vir</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>46</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZIB&#256;N&#298;TU</i>(Scales)</td>
    <td>Since MUL.APIN identifies the Scales with a part (horns) of the Scorpion this constellation vanished in early Greek astronomy and re-appeared only in early Roman times (Almagest and thereafter). We think, that the earlier versions of the Scales should have been a separate constellation and not part of the Scorpion. That's why, we turned it around 180° because in the Babylonian sky culture Virgo (as Furrow as well as the Maiden &Scaron;ala) does not need so much space.</td>
    <td>circa Lib</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>47</notr></td>
    <td>STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Zababa</td>
    <td>Normally identified with the area of Ophiuchus. </td>
    <td><notr>Oph</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>48, 49</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ER&Ucirc;</i> (Eagle) and <sup>STAR</sup><i>PAGRU</i> (Corpse)</td>
    <td>The Eagle (Aql) is connected with a Corpse which reminds on the Almagest figure of the Eagle carrying dead Antinuos. It appears likely that the Eagle, in former times, had been a vulture because vultures are associated with dead bodies and eagles not and in Babylonian mythology an eagle carries preferably a living (not dead) man. Additionally, many early languages do not distinguish eagles and vultures. </td>
    <td><notr>Aql +</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6; color: #ff0000">
    <td></td>
    <td colspan="3">Path of Anum completed.</td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    </table>
    <table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1">
    <tbody>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
    <td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
    <td>asterism</td>
    <td>our commentary</td>
    <td>position in the sky</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>54</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>N&#362;NU</i>(Fish)</td>
    <td>Greek "the Great Fish" </td>
    <td><notr>PsA</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>55</notr></td>
    <td>GREAT&middot;STAR: <sup>GOD</sup>Ea</td>
    <td>The god of wisdom and witchcraft, Ea, is usually depicted with streams of water springing from his shoulders. For Babylonians this was a clear image of the springs of Euphrates and Tigris. Since this was not cler to the Greek, they named this figure simply "the Man with the Water" or "Water-Carrier".</td>
    <td><notr>Aqr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>56</notr></td>
    <td>STAR of (the city of) Eridu</td>
    <td></td>
    <td>Canopus<notr> (&alpha; Car)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>57</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to its right: STAR (of) <sup>&lt;GOD&gt;</sup>Ninma&#7723;</td>
    <td>Since Canopus is almost opposite Aquarius in the sky, it is unclear where this asterism is to be located.</td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>58</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>&#7722;AB(B)A&#7778;&#7778;&#274;R&#256;NU</i></td>
    <td>still unclear</td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>59</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to its right: <sup>STAR</sup><i>MA&Scaron;KAK&#256;TU</i>(Harrow), in the centre of which the Aps&ucirc; is visible</td>
    <td> still unclear - but maybe the Aps&ucirc; is the southernmost part of the Milky Way. </td>
    <td>in<notr> Vela (Aps&ucirc;~MW?)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>60</notr></td>
    <td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> behind it: <sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;ullat and <sup>GOD</sup>&#7722;ani&scaron;</td>
    <td>no hints, no clue</td>
    <td><notr>?</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>61</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind it which lights up like <sup>GOD</sup>Ea (and) sets like Ea: STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Numu&scaron;da</td>
    <td>should be an male anthropomorphous figure (a god)</td>
    <td><notr>Cen</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>62</notr></td>
    <td>STAR to the left of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQ&#298;PU</i> (Scorpion): <sup>STAR</sup><i>URIDIMMU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Lup</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>63</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQ&#298;PU</i></td>
    <td></td>
    <td><notr>Sco</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>64</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>IRAT&middot;ZUQAQ&#298;PI<br/></i> (Breast of the Scorpion): <sup>GOD</sup>Lisin</td>
    <td>single star name</td>
    <td>Antares<notr> (&alpha; Sco)</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>65</notr></td>
    <td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> on the sting (<i>ZIQTU</i>) of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQ&#298;PU</i>: <sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;arur and <sup>GOD</sup>&Scaron;argaz</td>
    <td>Since &Scaron;argaz is an old term for the sting, this is almost clear and re-applied as official modern star name by the IAU 2016.</td>
    <td><notr>&lambda;, &nu; Sco</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
    <td><notr>66</notr></td>
    <td>STAR behind them: <sup>GOD</sup>Pabilsa&#285;</td>
    <td>The depiction of god Pabilsa&#285; is iconographically clear. It can easily be transformed to a Greek centaur (see Boll, 1903). </td>
    <td><notr>Sgr</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
    <td><notr>67, 68</notr></td>
    <td><sup>STAR</sup><i>MAKURRU</i> (Bark) (and?) <sup>STAR</sup><i>SU&#7722;URM&#256;&Scaron;U</i> (Goat-fish) </td>
    <td> Either the Bark was identified with the Goat-Fish implying that both terms designate the same constellation (esp. likely for Old Babylonian epochs before MUL.APIN, hypotheses published by Craig Crossen in Sky&Telescope). Alternatively (and esp. likely for later epochs) the Bark was shifted to the west, under the feet of Pabilsa&#285; (Sagittarius). That explains Eratosthenes's long debate on the illogial image of a centaur standing on a ship. In case The Bark was a standalone constellation, it should be identified with Ptolemy's Southern Crown (Corona Australis).</td>
    <td><notr>(CrA &amp;) Cap</notr></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6;; color: #ff0000">
    <td></td>
    <td colspan="3">Path of <sup>GOD</sup>Ea completed.</td>
    </tr>
    </tbody>
    </table>
    </p>

note: Babylonian (Seleucid) sky culture references section in markdown format
en:  - [#1]: Franz Boll (1903), Sphaera. Teubner, Leipzig.
     - [#2]: Craig Crossen (2015), Sky and Telescope, March 2015, p.36-40.
     - [#3]: Hermann Hunger and David Pingree (1999), Astral Science in Mesopotamia, Brill, Leiden.
     - [#4]: Hermann Hunger and John Steele (2018), The Babylonian astronomical compendium MUL.APIN, Routledge, London/ New York.
     - [#5]: Susanne M. Hoffmann (2017), [Hipparchs Himmelsglobus](https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783658186821), Springer, Wiesbaden, New York.
     - [#6]: Susanne M. Hoffmann (2017), *History of Constellations as popularization of uranometry* in: Wolfschmidt, Gudrun [ed.]: [Popularisierung der Astronomie](https://tredition.de/autoren/gudrun-wolfschmidt-1029/popularisierung-der-astronomie-proceedings-der-tagung-des-arbeitskreises-astronomiegeschichte-in-der-astronomischen-gesellschaft-in-bochum-2016-hardcover-91756/), Nuncius Hamburgensis, Bd. 41, Hamburg.
     - [#7]: Alexander Jones (2004), “A Study of Babylonian Observations of Planets Near Normal Stars”, Archive for History of Exact Sciences.
     - [#8]: Jordi Pàmias and Klaus Geus (2007), Eratosthenes: Sternsagen (Catasterismi), Utopica, Oberhaid.
     - [#9]: Many publications on *ziqpu* star lists by Wayne Horowitz, John M. Steele, E. Weidner, J. Koch, and others are compiled or/and discussed in the above books, especially the one by Hunger and Pingree (1999) which is why we do not list them in detail here.
    
    ### Thanks to
    
    Thanks to some very enthusiastic planetarium managers for their request and development time in their domes.
    
     - Dr. Björn Voss (Manager of LWL Planetarium Münster and head of Society of German-speaking Planetariums)
     - Stefan Harnisch (Manager of Planetarium Jena)
en_AU:  - [#1]: Franz Boll (1903), Sphaera. Teubner, Leipzig.
     - [#2]: Craig Crossen (2015), Sky and Telescope, March 2015, p.36-40.
     - [#3]: Hermann Hunger and David Pingree (1999), Astral Science in Mesopotamia, Brill, Leiden.
     - [#4]: Hermann Hunger and John Steele (2018), The Babylonian astronomical compendium MUL.APIN, Routledge, London/ New York.
     - [#5]: Susanne M. Hoffmann (2017), [Hipparchs Himmelsglobus](https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783658186821), Springer, Wiesbaden, New York.
     - [#6]: Susanne M. Hoffmann (2017), *History of Constellations as popularisation of uranometry* in: Wolfschmidt, Gudrun [ed.]: [Popularisierung der Astronomie](https://tredition.de/autoren/gudrun-wolfschmidt-1029/popularisierung-der-astronomie-proceedings-der-tagung-des-arbeitskreises-astronomiegeschichte-in-der-astronomischen-gesellschaft-in-bochum-2016-hardcover-91756/), Nuncius Hamburgensis, Bd. 41, Hamburg.
     - [#7]: Alexander Jones (2004), “A Study of Babylonian Observations of Planets Near Normal Stars”, Archive for History of Exact Sciences.
     - [#8]: Jordi Pàmias and Klaus Geus (2007), Eratosthenes: Sternsagen (Catasterismi), Utopica, Oberhaid.
     - [#9]: Many publications on *ziqpu* star lists by Wayne Horowitz, John M. Steele, E. Weidner, J. Koch, and others are compiled or/and discussed in the above books, especially the one by Hunger and Pingree (1999) which is why we do not list them in detail here.
    
    ### Thanks to
    
    Thanks to some very enthusiastic planetarium managers for their request and development time in their domes.
    
     - Dr. Björn Voss (Manager of LWL Planetarium Münster and head of Society of German-speaking Planetariums)
     - Stefan Harnisch (Manager of Planetarium Jena)

note: Egyptian sky culture description section in markdown format
en: However there were differences in names. For example, Cancer the Crab is represented by the Scarab Beetle. The figure of the Lion near the Scales (which is not the zodiacal Lion) is the constellation Centaurus [#1].
    
    Earlier constellations are more problematic, but some indications exist that some modern zodiac signs are very ancient indeed [#2], although the constellations did change significantly over time [#3].
    
    The Egyptians recognized five planets and called them the "stars that knew no rest". Their movement across the heavens reminded the Egyptians of the five gods sailing across the sky in their solar barque (boat). The planet now known as Jupiter was called "Horus Who Limits the Two Lands"; Mars was "Horus of the Horizon"; Mercury was "Sebegu", associated with Set; Saturn was "Horus the Bull of the Sky"; and Venus was "the God of the Morning" [#7].
en_AU: However there were differences in names. For example, Cancer the Crab is represented by the Scarab Beetle. The figure of the Lion near the Scales (which is not the zodiacal Lion) is the constellation Centaurus [#1].
    
    Earlier constellations are more problematic, but some indications exist that some modern zodiac signs are very ancient indeed [#2], although the constellations did change significantly over time [#3].
    
    The Egyptians recognised five planets and called them the "stars that knew no rest". Their movement across the heavens reminded the Egyptians of the five gods sailing across the sky in their solar barque (boat). The planet now known as Jupiter was called "Horus Who Limits the Two Lands"; Mars was "Horus of the Horizon"; Mercury was "Sebegu", associated with Set; Saturn was "Horus the Bull of the Sky"; and Venus was "the God of the Morning" [#7].

note: Greek (Almagest) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: The Almagest consists of 13 sections, called books. In the seventh
    and eighth book, Ptolemy listed a total of 1022 stars in 48 constellations
    (among which are about 5 star-like objects like globular star clusters).
    It is a table of coordinates of the stars with a description of their
    position in the constellation (such as "star at the elbow of X, longitude,
    latitude, magnitude"). With regard to precession, Ptolemy used ecliptic
    coordinates. As one of the first of his time, Ptolemy included the
    magnitude, a quantitative scale of stellar brightness, probably adopted
    from Hipparchus (which is not certain because Hipparchus&rsquo; catalog
    is not preserved). The scale starts with the brightest star with the
    magnitude of 1, going down to magnitude of 6, for the faintest stars
    visible.
    
    <p>For the computation of planet positions Ptolemy used a geocentric model
    (which is allowed because the observer always stands on Earth) and, thus,
    contributed to the scientific belief that the heliocentric model by
    Aristarch was not needed. However, for the star catalogue of the
    <i>Almagest</i> this does not matter at all because a star catalogue
    always represents a sort of inventory of the fixed dots in the sky and
    Ptolemy's proclaimed aim of the catalogue is to provide a list for making
    a celestial globe (see Alm., VIII, 3). Being aware of precession he wants
    to ease the business of future globemakers by using ecliptical coordinates:
    Precession as known to Ptolemy shifts all stars parallel to the ecliptic,
    therefore updates to the epoch of the respective globemaker could be
    applied by a simple subtraction of the value for ecliptic longitude.</p>
    
    ### How this sky culture was made
    
    ### Star names
    
    Out of more than 1,000 stars, Ptolemy mentions a proper name for only 15.
    The rest are identified by fairly long descriptions such as "The star on
    the end of the tail" for the Polaris. In order to avoid displaying such long
    strings across the screen in Stellarium, we invented short labels for all
    Almagest stars based on the constellation and the order in which they appear in
    the catalogue.  For example, Polaris is given a designation "UMi 1" because
    it is the first star in the constellation of Small Bear (UMi).  See the table
    below for the correspondence between Ptolemy constellations and IAU abbreviations.
    In addition, where Ptolemy describes a star as lying outside of the figure,
    we use lowercase letters in the corresponding label. To see the long description
    for a given star, users should enable "Use additional names of stars" in the
    "View [F4]/Sky" settings and click on the star. The long description will then
    be displayed at the top of the screen.
    
    ### Constellation lines
    
    The process can be described as sketched here with the example of
    Corvus:
    
    In the constellation of Corvus (Raven), &alpha; Crv is the star in
    the &quot;head of the raven&quot;. It is connected with the &quot;star
    in the neck&quot;, &epsilon; Crv.  This one is connected with &quot;the
    star in the breast&quot; &zeta; Crv.  From there two lines go to the
    tips of the wings. &gamma; Crv is the star in the advanced wing and
    &delta; Crv the star in the rear wing. From the star in the breast
    another line goes to the &quot;foot of the raven&quot;, the star &beta;
    Crv.
    
    <p><img width="800" src="illustrations/corvus_s.png" /></p>
    <p>After identifying the stars based on their coordinates and names, we
    reconnected the stars according to the descriptions in the table
    presented in the <i>Almagest</i>.</p>
    <p>The names of stars and names of deep sky objects rely on the Almagest
    only, e.g. Ptolemy uses the name &quot;&lambda;&alpha;&mu;&pi;&alpha;&delta;&#943;&alpha;&sigmaf;
    (The Torch-like)&quot; for Aldebaran in his other work, the
    <i>Tetrabiblos</i>, but this is not implemented in this sky culture because
    it doesn't show up in the Almagest.</p>
    
    The following table displays the original constellation name in Greek and its
    English translation (column 2 and 3) and denotes our uncertainties in
    the reconstruction (column 6).
    
    <table>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><b>Abbreviation</b></td>
    	<td><b>Original name</b></td>
    	<td><b>Translation</b> (direct)</td>
    	<td><b>IAU (Latin) name</b></td>
    	<td><b>hints to constellation</b></td>
    	<td><b>freedom of art</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>UMi</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Mu;&iota;&kappa;&rho;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Small She-Bear</td>
    	<td><notr>Ursa Minor</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>UMa</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Mu;&epsilon;&gamma;&alpha;&lambda;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Great She-Bear</td>
    	<td><notr>Ursa Major</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Dra</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Delta;&rho;&#940;&kappa;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Dragon</td>
    	<td><notr>Draco</notr></td>
    	<td>all triangles or squares are vertebra or parts of the body; line at the head is the tongue</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cep</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&phi;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kepheus</td>
    	<td><notr>Cepheus</notr></td>
    	<td>king, upside down </td>
    	<td>three head stars are tiara; &beta; seen as part of the belt, although Almagest says beneath belt</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Boo</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Beta;&omicron;&#974;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Ploughman</td>
    	<td><notr>Bo&ouml;tes</notr></td>
    	<td>has a shepherd's staff in his hand (&omega;)</td>
    	<td>star HIP 72582 added as neck star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CrB</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Crown</td>
    	<td><notr>Corona Borealis</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation; no details for lines in the text</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Her</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&Epsilon;&nu;&gamma;&#972;&nu;&alpha;&sigma;&iota;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kneeler</td>
    	<td><notr>Hercules</notr></td>
    	<td>one of the foot stars is top of staff of Bootes</td>
    	<td>star HIP 82764 added as neck star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lyr</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Lambda;&#973;&rho;&alpha;</notr></td>
    	<td>Lyre</td>
    	<td><notr>Lyra</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cyg</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&#714;&Omicron;&rho;&nu;&iota;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Bird</td>
    	<td><notr>Cygnus</notr></td>
    	<td>swan with legs</td>
    	<td>Tips of wings connected with tail</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cas</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&sigma;&sigma;&iota;&#941;&pi;&epsilon;&iota;&alpha;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kassiepeia</td>
    	<td><notr>Cassiopeia</notr></td>
    	<td>Queen sitting on a throne</td>
    	<td>to avoid confusion we did not draw the throne</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Per</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&epsilon;&rho;&sigma;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Perseus</td>
    	<td><notr>Perseus</notr></td>
    	<td>Double star cluster NGC 869 and NGC 884 as Deep Sky Object - &gt;one of the stars in the cluster was used for drawing</td>
    	<td>one of the stars in Gorgon-head is added to make the head look more spherical</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Aur</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&Eta;&nu;&#943;&omicron;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Charioteer</td>
    	<td><notr>Auriga</notr></td>
    	<td>wears long garment; garment limited through shoulders and hem</td>
    	<td>&omicron; Aur added as neck star; 1 Aur added as hem star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Oph</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&omicron;&#973;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Serpent Bearer</td>
    	<td><notr>Ophiuchus</notr></td>
    	<td>has serpent in his hand</td>
    	<td>a star added as neck star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ser</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&#714;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Snake</td>
    	<td><notr>Serpens</notr></td>
    	<td>two separate parts of the snake (head and tail); square is head</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Sge</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Omicron;&iota;&sigma;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Arrow</td>
    	<td><notr>Sagitta</notr></td>
    	<td>Like IAU constellation, &eta; Sge is missing </td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Aql</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&epsilon;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Eagle</td>
    	<td><notr>Aquila</notr></td>
    	<td>&tau; Aql as head star, &beta; as neck, Altair is between shoulders, &gamma; and &mu; are shoulders</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Del</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Delta;&epsilon;&lambda;&phi;&#943;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Dolphin</td>
    	<td><notr>Delphinus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>refined shape</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Equ</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&rho;&omicron;&tau;&omicron;&mu;&#942;</notr></td>
    	<td>Bust [of a horse]</td>
    	<td><notr>Equuleus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Peg</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Iota;&pi;&pi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Horse</td>
    	<td><notr>Pegasus</notr></td>
    	<td>with mane and one wing</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>And</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&nu;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&mu;&#941;&delta;&alpha;</notr></td>
    	<td>Andromeda</td>
    	<td class='latin'><notr>Andromeda</notr></td>
    	<td>dress and belt</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Tri</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Tau;&rho;&#943;&gamma;&omega;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Triangle</td>
    	<td><notr>Triangulum</notr></td>
    	<td>four given stars &#61664; middle star of one side</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ari</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&rho;&iota;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Ram</td>
    	<td><notr>Aries</notr></td>
    	<td>turned head; only one horn</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Tau</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&#771;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Bull</td>
    	<td><notr>Taurus</notr></td>
    	<td>half body, only two legs visible; direction of view to observer</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Gem</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Delta;&#943;&delta;&upsilon;&mu;&omicron;&iota;</notr></td>
    	<td>Twins</td>
    	<td><notr>Gemini</notr></td>
    	<td>one star in common; touching each other with hands</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cnc</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&rho;&kappa;&#943;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Crab</td>
    	<td><notr>Cancer</notr></td>
    	<td>square body</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Leo</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Lambda;&#941;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Lion</td>
    	<td><notr>Leo</notr></td>
    	<td>opens jaw</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Vir</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&alpha;&rho;&theta;&#941;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Maiden</td>
    	<td><notr>Virgo</notr></td>
    	<td>no separate head</td>
    	<td>fainter stars added to draw the wings</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lib</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Chi;&eta;&lambda;&alpha;&#943;</notr></td>
    	<td>Claws [of the Scorpion]</td>
    	<td><notr>Libra</notr></td>
    	<td>Ptolemy always uses the term &quot;claws&quot;, never &quot;the balance&quot;.</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Sco</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Sigma;&kappa;&omicron;&rho;&pi;&#943;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Scorpion</td>
    	<td><notr>Scorpius</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>arms added around the head: &nu; and &rho;</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Sgr</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Tau;&omicron;&xi;&#972;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Archer</td>
    	<td><notr>Sagittarius</notr></td>
    	<td>a centaur with  bow ahead; &bdquo;cloak&ldquo; behind</td>
    	<td>we included many faint stars in our stick figure in order to make the picture clear.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cap</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Alpha;&#943;&gamma;&#972;&kappa;&epsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>The One with the Goat's Horn</td>
    	<td><notr>Capricornus</notr></td>
    	<td>fish tail; two legs visible</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Aqr</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&chi;&#972;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Water-Carrier</td>
    	<td><notr>Aquarius</notr></td>
    	<td>water out of jug</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Psc</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&epsilon;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>[2] Fish</td>
    	<td><notr>Pisces</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>northern fish: 68(h), 67(k), and 65(i) described as head in Almagest but we took them as fin because mouth should be at g and &tau; Psc. Additional change on tail fin: extended to &rho;</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cet</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&#771;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Sea Monster</td>
    	<td><notr>Cetus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>Body does not go through star &tau;, but through star &upsilon;</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ori</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Omega;&rho;&#943;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Orion</td>
    	<td class='latin'><notr>Orion</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>The &quot;head&quot; is labeled as &quot;nebulous&quot; which means Ptolemy interpreted &phi;<sub>1</sub>, &phi;<sub>2</sub>, and  &lambda;, together with fainter stars between them as a &quot;cluster&quot; (or association which is more extended than the modern &quot;&lambda; Ori Assoc.&quot;). Head does not have direct connection to the shoulder stars anymore, but a connection to a star between the stars in the shoulders.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Eri</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&omicron;&tau;&alpha;&mu;&omicron;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>River [nameless]</td>
    	<td><notr>Eridanus</notr></td>
    	<td>Like IAU constellation, but shorter</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lep</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Lambda;&alpha;&gamma;&omega;&#771;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Hare</td>
    	<td><notr>Lepus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>took the "4 stars over the ear" as ear</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CMa</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Dog</td>
    	<td><notr>Canis Major</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CMi</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&rho;&omicron;&kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>The One before the Dog</td>
    	<td><notr>Canis Minor</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>In Almagest, the name of the constellation is &quot;The One before the Dog&quot; or &quot;Harbinger of Sirius&quot; as Toomer puts it. However, &beta; CMi is called &quot;the neck&quot; (of whom is unknown).</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Arg</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&rho;&gamma;&omega;</notr></td>
    	<td>Ship &quot;Argo&quot;</td>
    	<td><notr>Argo</notr></td>
    	<td>smaller than the sum of the IAU-constellations Pup+Pyx+Car+Vel</td>
    	<td>Many stars not integrated in the constellation, to create a boat-like shape; in many depictions (including the ancient Farnese globe), only a half of a ship is painted.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Hya</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Water Snake</td>
    	<td><notr>Hydra</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Crt</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&rho;&alpha;&tau;&#768;&eta;&rho;</notr></td>
    	<td>Krater (vessel)</td>
    	<td><notr>Crater</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>a Krater is special Greek wine mixing vessel which looks like an amphora or vase: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krater">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krater</a> Ptolemy describes only one star in the foot (&alpha; Crt) and two handles (&eta;, &theta; Crt)</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Crv</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&oacute;&rho;&alpha;&xi;</notr></td>
    	<td>Raven</td>
    	<td><notr>Corvus</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cen</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&#941;&nu;&tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kentauros</td>
    	<td><notr>Centaurus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>deviation from description: HIP 65373 instead of &omega; Cen (cluster) taken as star on the back. &lsquo;Thyrsus&lsquo; not drawn (to avoid confusion), backward arm added.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lup</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Theta;&eta;&rho;&#943;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Beast</td>
    	<td><notr>Lupus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>&beta; described as &lsquo;End of hind leg&lsquo; -> taken as star in the belly; &tau;<sub>1</sub> as hindleg; &chi; in head, because otherwise shapelessness arises; HIP 73493 taken as foreleg</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ara</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Theta;&upsilon;&mu;&iota;&alpha;&tau;&#942;&rho;&iota;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Altar</td>
    	<td><notr>Ara</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CrA</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf; &Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Southern Crown</td>
    	<td><notr>Corona Australis</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation; only uncertainty with stars that only got a BSC number in the Almagest, because these are not clearly to identify in Stellarium</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>PsA</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf; &#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Southern Fish</td>
    	<td><notr>Piscis Austrinus</notr></td>
    	<td>the fish is laying on his back</td>
    	<td>the fish is apparently dead: the belly up, or an eelwith twisted spine; we added a few stars to mark the tail fin whose tip is given as &beta; PsA.</td>
    </tr>
    </table>
    
    ### Fair Use
    
    This sky culture originates from a student's year of research. We provide this for free but
    authors of contributions certainly deserve to be cited according to the common rules. Thank you!
    
    ### Thanks
    
    The authors thank Patrick Gleason and Georg Zotti for English proofreading and interesting discussions.
en_AU: The Almagest consists of 13 sections, called books. In the seventh
    and eighth book, Ptolemy listed a total of 1022 stars in 48 constellations
    (among which are about 5 star-like objects like globular star clusters).
    It is a table of coordinates of the stars with a description of their
    position in the constellation (such as "star at the elbow of X, longitude,
    latitude, magnitude"). With regard to precession, Ptolemy used ecliptic
    coordinates. As one of the first of his time, Ptolemy included the
    magnitude, a quantitative scale of stellar brightness, probably adopted
    from Hipparchus (which is not certain because Hipparchus&rsquo; catalogue
    is not preserved). The scale starts with the brightest star with the
    magnitude of 1, going down to magnitude of 6, for the faintest stars
    visible.
    
    <p>For the computation of planet positions Ptolemy used a geocentric model
    (which is allowed because the observer always stands on Earth) and, thus,
    contributed to the scientific belief that the heliocentric model by
    Aristarch was not needed. However, for the star catalogue of the
    <i>Almagest</i> this does not matter at all because a star catalogue
    always represents a sort of inventory of the fixed dots in the sky and
    Ptolemy's proclaimed aim of the catalogue is to provide a list for making
    a celestial globe (see Alm., VIII, 3). Being aware of precession he wants
    to ease the business of future globemakers by using ecliptical coordinates:
    Precession as known to Ptolemy shifts all stars parallel to the ecliptic,
    therefore updates to the epoch of the respective globemaker could be
    applied by a simple subtraction of the value for ecliptic longitude.</p>
    
    ### How this sky culture was made
    
    ### Star names
    
    Out of more than 1,000 stars, Ptolemy mentions a proper name for only 15.
    The rest are identified by fairly long descriptions such as "The star on
    the end of the tail" for the Polaris. In order to avoid displaying such long
    strings across the screen in Stellarium, we invented short labels for all
    Almagest stars based on the constellation and the order in which they appear in
    the catalogue.  For example, Polaris is given a designation "UMi 1" because
    it is the first star in the constellation of Small Bear (UMi).  See the table
    below for the correspondence between Ptolemy constellations and IAU abbreviations.
    In addition, where Ptolemy describes a star as lying outside of the figure,
    we use lowercase letters in the corresponding label. To see the long description
    for a given star, users should enable "Use additional names of stars" in the
    "View [F4]/Sky" settings and click on the star. The long description will then
    be displayed at the top of the screen.
    
    ### Constellation lines
    
    The process can be described as sketched here with the example of
    Corvus:
    
    In the constellation of Corvus (Raven), &alpha; Crv is the star in
    the &quot;head of the raven&quot;. It is connected with the &quot;star
    in the neck&quot;, &epsilon; Crv.  This one is connected with &quot;the
    star in the breast&quot; &zeta; Crv.  From there two lines go to the
    tips of the wings. &gamma; Crv is the star in the advanced wing and
    &delta; Crv the star in the rear wing. From the star in the breast
    another line goes to the &quot;foot of the raven&quot;, the star &beta;
    Crv.
    
    <p><img width="800" src="illustrations/corvus_s.png" /></p>
    <p>After identifying the stars based on their coordinates and names, we
    reconnected the stars according to the descriptions in the table
    presented in the <i>Almagest</i>.</p>
    <p>The names of stars and names of deep sky objects rely on the Almagest
    only, e.g. Ptolemy uses the name &quot;&lambda;&alpha;&mu;&pi;&alpha;&delta;&#943;&alpha;&sigmaf;
    (The Torch-like)&quot; for Aldebaran in his other work, the
    <i>Tetrabiblos</i>, but this is not implemented in this sky culture because
    it doesn't show up in the Almagest.</p>
    
    The following table displays the original constellation name in Greek and its
    English translation (column 2 and 3) and denotes our uncertainties in
    the reconstruction (column 6).
    
    <table>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><b>Abbreviation</b></td>
    	<td><b>Original name</b></td>
    	<td><b>Translation</b> (direct)</td>
    	<td><b>IAU (Latin) name</b></td>
    	<td><b>hints to constellation</b></td>
    	<td><b>freedom of art</b></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>UMi</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Mu;&iota;&kappa;&rho;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Small She-Bear</td>
    	<td><notr>Ursa Minor</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>UMa</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Mu;&epsilon;&gamma;&alpha;&lambda;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Great She-Bear</td>
    	<td><notr>Ursa Major</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Dra</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Delta;&rho;&#940;&kappa;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Dragon</td>
    	<td><notr>Draco</notr></td>
    	<td>all triangles or squares are vertebra or parts of the body; line at the head is the tongue</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cep</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&phi;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kepheus</td>
    	<td><notr>Cepheus</notr></td>
    	<td>king, upside down </td>
    	<td>three head stars are tiara; &beta; seen as part of the belt, although Almagest says beneath belt</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Boo</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Beta;&omicron;&#974;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Ploughman</td>
    	<td><notr>Bo&ouml;tes</notr></td>
    	<td>has a shepherd's staff in his hand (&omega;)</td>
    	<td>star HIP 72582 added as neck star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CrB</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Crown</td>
    	<td><notr>Corona Borealis</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation; no details for lines in the text</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Her</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&Epsilon;&nu;&gamma;&#972;&nu;&alpha;&sigma;&iota;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kneeler</td>
    	<td><notr>Hercules</notr></td>
    	<td>one of the foot stars is top of staff of Bootes</td>
    	<td>star HIP 82764 added as neck star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lyr</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Lambda;&#973;&rho;&alpha;</notr></td>
    	<td>Lyre</td>
    	<td><notr>Lyra</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cyg</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&#714;&Omicron;&rho;&nu;&iota;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Bird</td>
    	<td><notr>Cygnus</notr></td>
    	<td>swan with legs</td>
    	<td>Tips of wings connected with tail</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cas</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&sigma;&sigma;&iota;&#941;&pi;&epsilon;&iota;&alpha;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kassiepeia</td>
    	<td><notr>Cassiopeia</notr></td>
    	<td>Queen sitting on a throne</td>
    	<td>to avoid confusion we did not draw the throne</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Per</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&epsilon;&rho;&sigma;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Perseus</td>
    	<td><notr>Perseus</notr></td>
    	<td>Double star cluster NGC 869 and NGC 884 as Deep Sky Object - &gt;one of the stars in the cluster was used for drawing</td>
    	<td>one of the stars in Gorgon-head is added to make the head look more spherical</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Aur</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&Eta;&nu;&#943;&omicron;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Charioteer</td>
    	<td><notr>Auriga</notr></td>
    	<td>wears long garment; garment limited through shoulders and hem</td>
    	<td>&omicron; Aur added as neck star; 1 Aur added as hem star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Oph</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&omicron;&#973;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Serpent Bearer</td>
    	<td><notr>Ophiuchus</notr></td>
    	<td>has serpent in his hand</td>
    	<td>a star added as neck star</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ser</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&#714;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Snake</td>
    	<td><notr>Serpens</notr></td>
    	<td>two separate parts of the snake (head and tail); square is head</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Sge</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Omicron;&iota;&sigma;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Arrow</td>
    	<td><notr>Sagitta</notr></td>
    	<td>Like IAU constellation, &eta; Sge is missing </td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Aql</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&epsilon;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Eagle</td>
    	<td><notr>Aquila</notr></td>
    	<td>&tau; Aql as head star, &beta; as neck, Altair is between shoulders, &gamma; and &mu; are shoulders</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Del</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Delta;&epsilon;&lambda;&phi;&#943;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Dolphin</td>
    	<td><notr>Delphinus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>refined shape</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Equ</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&rho;&omicron;&tau;&omicron;&mu;&#942;</notr></td>
    	<td>Bust [of a horse]</td>
    	<td><notr>Equuleus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Peg</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Iota;&pi;&pi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Horse</td>
    	<td><notr>Pegasus</notr></td>
    	<td>with mane and one wing</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>And</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&nu;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&mu;&#941;&delta;&alpha;</notr></td>
    	<td>Andromeda</td>
    	<td class='latin'><notr>Andromeda</notr></td>
    	<td>dress and belt</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Tri</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Tau;&rho;&#943;&gamma;&omega;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Triangle</td>
    	<td><notr>Triangulum</notr></td>
    	<td>four given stars &#61664; middle star of one side</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ari</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&rho;&iota;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Ram</td>
    	<td><notr>Aries</notr></td>
    	<td>turned head; only one horn</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Tau</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&#771;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Bull</td>
    	<td><notr>Taurus</notr></td>
    	<td>half body, only two legs visible; direction of view to observer</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Gem</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Delta;&#943;&delta;&upsilon;&mu;&omicron;&iota;</notr></td>
    	<td>Twins</td>
    	<td><notr>Gemini</notr></td>
    	<td>one star in common; touching each other with hands</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cnc</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&rho;&kappa;&#943;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Crab</td>
    	<td><notr>Cancer</notr></td>
    	<td>square body</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Leo</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Lambda;&#941;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Lion</td>
    	<td><notr>Leo</notr></td>
    	<td>opens jaw</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Vir</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&alpha;&rho;&theta;&#941;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Maiden</td>
    	<td><notr>Virgo</notr></td>
    	<td>no separate head</td>
    	<td>fainter stars added to draw the wings</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lib</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Chi;&eta;&lambda;&alpha;&#943;</notr></td>
    	<td>Claws [of the Scorpion]</td>
    	<td><notr>Libra</notr></td>
    	<td>Ptolemy always uses the term &quot;claws&quot;, never &quot;the balance&quot;.</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Sco</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Sigma;&kappa;&omicron;&rho;&pi;&#943;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Scorpion</td>
    	<td><notr>Scorpius</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>arms added around the head: &nu; and &rho;</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Sgr</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Tau;&omicron;&xi;&#972;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Archer</td>
    	<td><notr>Sagittarius</notr></td>
    	<td>a centaur with  bow ahead; &bdquo;cloak&ldquo; behind</td>
    	<td>we included many faint stars in our stick figure in order to make the picture clear.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cap</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Alpha;&#943;&gamma;&#972;&kappa;&epsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>The One with the Goat's Horn</td>
    	<td><notr>Capricornus</notr></td>
    	<td>fish tail; two legs visible</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Aqr</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&chi;&#972;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Water-Carrier</td>
    	<td><notr>Aquarius</notr></td>
    	<td>water out of jug</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Psc</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&epsilon;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>[2] Fish</td>
    	<td><notr>Pisces</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>northern fish: 68(h), 67(k), and 65(i) described as head in Almagest but we took them as fin because mouth should be at g and &tau; Psc. Additional change on tail fin: extended to &rho;</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cet</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&#771;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Sea Monster</td>
    	<td><notr>Cetus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>Body does not go through star &tau;, but through star &upsilon;</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ori</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Omega;&rho;&#943;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Orion</td>
    	<td class='latin'><notr>Orion</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>The &quot;head&quot; is labeled as &quot;nebulous&quot; which means Ptolemy interpreted &phi;<sub>1</sub>, &phi;<sub>2</sub>, and  &lambda;, together with fainter stars between them as a &quot;cluster&quot; (or association which is more extended than the modern &quot;&lambda; Ori Assoc.&quot;). Head does not have direct connection to the shoulder stars anymore, but a connection to a star between the stars in the shoulders.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Eri</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&omicron;&tau;&alpha;&mu;&omicron;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>River [nameless]</td>
    	<td><notr>Eridanus</notr></td>
    	<td>Like IAU constellation, but shorter</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lep</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Lambda;&alpha;&gamma;&omega;&#771;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Hare</td>
    	<td><notr>Lepus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>took the "4 stars over the ear" as ear</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CMa</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Dog</td>
    	<td><notr>Canis Major</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CMi</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Pi;&rho;&omicron;&kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>The One before the Dog</td>
    	<td><notr>Canis Minor</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>In Almagest, the name of the constellation is &quot;The One before the Dog&quot; or &quot;Harbinger of Sirius&quot; as Toomer puts it. However, &beta; CMi is called &quot;the neck&quot; (of whom is unknown).</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Arg</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&rho;&gamma;&omega;</notr></td>
    	<td>Ship &quot;Argo&quot;</td>
    	<td><notr>Argo</notr></td>
    	<td>smaller than the sum of the IAU-constellations Pup+Pyx+Car+Vel</td>
    	<td>Many stars not integrated in the constellation, to create a boat-like shape; in many depictions (including the ancient Farnese globe), only a half of a ship is painted.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Hya</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Water Snake</td>
    	<td><notr>Hydra</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Crt</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&rho;&alpha;&tau;&#768;&eta;&rho;</notr></td>
    	<td>Krater (vessel)</td>
    	<td><notr>Crater</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>a Krater is special Greek wine mixing vessel which looks like an amphora or vase: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krater">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krater</a> Ptolemy describes only one star in the foot (&alpha; Crt) and two handles (&eta;, &theta; Crt)</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Crv</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&oacute;&rho;&alpha;&xi;</notr></td>
    	<td>Raven</td>
    	<td><notr>Corvus</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Cen</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Kappa;&#941;&nu;&tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Kentauros</td>
    	<td><notr>Centaurus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>deviation from description: HIP 65373 instead of &omega; Cen (cluster) taken as star on the back. &lsquo;Thyrsus&lsquo; not drawn (to avoid confusion), backward arm added.</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Lup</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Theta;&eta;&rho;&#943;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Beast</td>
    	<td><notr>Lupus</notr></td>
    	<td></td>
    	<td>&beta; described as &lsquo;End of hind leg&lsquo; -> taken as star in the belly; &tau;<sub>1</sub> as hindleg; &chi; in head, because otherwise shapelessness arises; HIP 73493 taken as foreleg</td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>Ara</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Theta;&upsilon;&mu;&iota;&alpha;&tau;&#942;&rho;&iota;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    	<td>Altar</td>
    	<td><notr>Ara</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>CrA</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf; &Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Southern Crown</td>
    	<td><notr>Corona Australis</notr></td>
    	<td>like IAU constellation; only uncertainty with stars that only got a BSC number in the Almagest, because these are not clearly to identify in Stellarium</td>
    	<td></td>
    </tr>
    <tr valign="top">
    	<td><notr>PsA</notr></td>
    	<td><notr>&Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf; &#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    	<td>Southern Fish</td>
    	<td><notr>Piscis Austrinus</notr></td>
    	<td>the fish is laying on his back</td>
    	<td>the fish is apparently dead: the belly up, or an eelwith twisted spine; we added a few stars to mark the tail fin whose tip is given as &beta; PsA.</td>
    </tr>
    </table>
    
    ### Fair Use
    
    This sky culture originates from a student's year of research. We provide this for free but
    authors of contributions certainly deserve to be cited according to the common rules. Thank you!
    
    ### Thanks
    
    The authors thank Patrick Gleason and Georg Zotti for English proofreading and interesting discussions.

note: Greek (Almagest) sky culture references section in markdown format
en:  - [#1]: Grasshoff, G.: The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalog, Springer, New York, 1990
     - [#2]: Heiberg, J. L. (Ed.): Claudii Ptolemaei: Syntaxis Mathematica, Teubner, Leipzig, 1898
     - [#3]: Hoffmann, S. M.: Hipparchs Himmelsglobus, Springer, Wiesbaden / New York, 2017
     - [#4]: Toomer, G. J.: Ptolemy's Almagest, Duckworth, London, 1984
     - [#5]: [Ernie Wright: Seeing Ancient Stars, Visualization of the Almagest Catalog, 2006](http://www.etwright.org/astro/almagest.html#cat)
en_AU:  - [#1]: Grasshoff, G.: The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalog, Springer, New York, 1990
     - [#2]: Heiberg, J. L. (Ed.): Claudii Ptolemaei: Syntaxis Mathematica, Teubner, Leipzig, 1898
     - [#3]: Hoffmann, S. M.: Hipparchs Himmelsglobus, Springer, Wiesbaden / New York, 2017
     - [#4]: Toomer, G. J.: Ptolemy's Almagest, Duckworth, London, 1984
     - [#5]: [Ernie Wright: Seeing Ancient Stars, Visualisation of the Almagest Catalog, 2006](http://www.etwright.org/astro/almagest.html#cat)

note: Greek (Leiden Aratea + Almagest) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: The figures are drawn from a non-preserved Roman model, but not from a globe, so that there is no fit to the stars. The stars themselves are only symbolically distributed on the figures, i.e. the number of stars per figure is marked in the manuscript in the form of applied gold leaves. The gold leaves, however, are not located at the true places of the stars in view of the figure in the sky, but are only indicated summarily. Elly Decker's essay discusses her proposed identifications in detail.
    
    <p><img width="800" src="illustrations/descr_pics/Aratea fol. 3v und 4r.jpg"/></p>
    <p><i>A sample page from the medieval manuscript shows the three cushion images Draco, Ursa Maior and Ursa Minor with the text opposite.</i></p>
    
    ### How this Sky Culture was made
    
    The illustrations of the individual figures were taken directly from the manuscript (provided by Prof. D. Blume, Jena, for planetarium applications). Stellarium works with point coordinates for stars in the catalogue of the astrometry satellite HIPPARCOS, so that the historical drawings have to be locked at three points each. Some of the flat book illustrations had to be distorted slightly on the planetarium dome to fit the stars. Except for the illustration of Scorpius and Ophiuchus, an approximate adjustment was possible.
    
     In a planetarium dome, i.e. against a dark background, the dark blue and black parts of the manuscript are not recognisable. That is why these parts (e.g. the crab as a figure, the horns of the ibex, the goats of the carter...) were colour-inverted. The female bears, which are supposed to be dark, have only been shifted slightly into the red. How the image looks in the original (with its lapis lazuli blue background and the original dark colours) is shown in the table below.
    
    There are some constellations in the Leiden Aratea, in particular Cen + Lup, Vir, Lib are leaving a huge gap in the sky.
    Both, Virgo and Centaur are probably not painted because the painter thought it were variants of the images of Sgr (Cen) and And (Vir).
    The artist of the Leiden Aratea never mapped the images onto the stars.
    In order to make these depictions understandable for us, I mapped them in Stellarium and added the names and stickfigures of the constellations and the names of individual stars from the Almagest.
    The Almagest is a book of mathematical astronomy of the 2nd century (i.e. the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian) while Aratos's poem describes a much earlier (~300 BCE) Greek sky culture.
    Both, the Almagest and the poem, are written in Greek originally but the Leiden Aratea presumably refers to a Latin translation of Aratus' poem and Roman artwork.
    
    The following table lists the original names of the constellations in columns 2 and 3. constellations, in column 4 the illustration in the manuscript.
    
    <p>
    <table>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><b>Latin Name, Abbreviation</b></td>
    		<td><b>Original Greek Name</b></td>
    		<td><b>Translation</b> (literally)</td>
    		<td><b>Picture</b></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Ursa Minor, Ursa Maior, Draco<br />UMi, UMa, Dra</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Mu;&iota;&kappa;&rho;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &Mu;&epsilon;&gamma;&alpha;&lambda;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &Delta;&rho;&#940;&kappa;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Little She-Bear, Great She-Bear, Dragon (Latin) / Snake (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_dra.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>King Cepheus, Cep</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&phi;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Kepheus</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cep.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Bootes, Boo</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Beta;&omicron;&#974;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Ox driver (Latin), Ploughing Man (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_boo.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Northern Crown, CrB</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Crown (Latin), Wreath (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_crB.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Hercules, Her</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Epsilon;&nu;&gamma;&#972;&nu;&alpha;&sigma;&iota;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Hercules (Latin), Kneeler (Greek)<br />The star between the legs is a well-known mistake in the picture: for this figure the draughtsman obviously took Bootes as a model; leg position, shepherd's crook (instead of club for Hercules) and star between the knees are the same.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_her.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Lyra, Lyr</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Lambda;&#973;&rho;&alpha;</notr></td>
    		<td>Lyre</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_lyr.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cygnus, Cyg</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&#714;&Omicron;&rho;&nu;&iota;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Bird [not specified]</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cyg.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cassiopeia, Cas</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&sigma;&sigma;&iota;&#941;&pi;&epsilon;&iota;&alpha;</notr></td>
    		<td>Queen Kassiepeia </td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cas.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Perseus, Per</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&epsilon;&rho;&sigma;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Perseus<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_per.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Auriga, Aur</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&Eta;&nu;&#943;&omicron;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Charioteer</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_aur.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Aquila et Sagitta,<br />Aql </notr>and<notr> Sge</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&epsilon;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf; </notr>and<notr> &#702;&Omicron;&iota;&sigma;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Eagle with Arrow</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_aql.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Delphinus, Del</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Delta;&epsilon;&lambda;&phi;&#943;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Dolphin <br /> In the Greek original (Aratos, ~300 BCE), there was no constellation Equuleus. The Farnese Globe (as well as the Mainz Globe and the Kugel Globe) depicts the Dolphin rather largely, covering the space of Equ. That is why I chose to follow this Aratean tradition also for the Leiden Aratea.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_del.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Pegasus, Peg</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Iota;&pi;&pi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Pegasus (name of a winged horse; Latin), a Horse (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_peg.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Andromeda, And</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&nu;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&mu;&#941;&delta;&alpha;</notr></td>
    		<td>Princess Andromeda</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_and.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Triangulum, Tri</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Tau;&rho;&#943;&gamma;&omega;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Triangle</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_tri.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Aries, Ari</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&rho;&iota;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Ram<br />(jumping through a ring which is a symbol for the year; Roman new year was in spring).</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_ari.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Taurus, Tau</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&#771;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Bull</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_tau.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>M45, </notr>Pleiades</td>
    		<td></td>
    		<td>The Pleiades<br />or Seven Sisters</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_plei.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Gemini, Gem</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Delta;&#943;&delta;&upsilon;&mu;&omicron;&iota;</notr></td>
    		<td>Twins</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_gem.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cancer, Cnc</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&rho;&kappa;&#943;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Cancer<br /><i>The cancer was lightened.</i></td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cnc.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Leo, Leo</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Lambda;&#941;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Lion<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_leo.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Virgo, Vir</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&alpha;&rho;&theta;&#941;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Young Lady<br />Apparently, the manuscript only contains one drawing for figures that are depicted twice: like Sagittarius is depicted as centaur and the constellation Centaur is missing, Andromeda is painted as young lady but the second young lady for the constellation of Virgo is missing.</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Libra, Lib</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Chi;&eta;&lambda;&alpha;&#943;</notr></td>
    		<td>Balance (Latin, since 1st century CE in Geminos and Manilius; transferred in a style epoch of Babylonian revival),
    		<br />Claws [of the Scorpion] (Greek)<br />The claws of the Scorpion indeed to cover this area.</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Ophiuchus et Serpens, Scorpius,<br />Oph + Ser </notr>and<notr> Sco</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&omicron;&#973;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &#702;&#714;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&sigmaf; </notr>and<notr> &Sigma;&kappa;&omicron;&rho;&pi;&#943;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Snake Carrier and Scorpion (both in the zodiac ever since)<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_oph.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Sagittarius, Sgr</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Tau;&omicron;&xi;&#972;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Archer</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_sgr.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Capricornus, Cap</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Alpha;&#943;&gamma;&#972;&kappa;&epsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>The Goat-Horned One</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cap.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Aquarius, Aqr</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&chi;&#972;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Water Pourer<br />mirrored depiction (although front view)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_aqr.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Pisces, Psc</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&epsilon;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Fishes</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_psc.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cetus, Cet</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&#771;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>a Sea Monster named Cetus</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cet.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Orion, Ori</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Omega;&rho;&#943;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Orion<br /><i>mirrored depiction</i><br />The Hare in this depiction had been deleted and replaced by the Hare from his own single-page painting.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_ori.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Eridanus, Eri</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&omicron;&tau;&alpha;&mu;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>the river Eridanus (Latin), an unnamed River (Greek);<br />here a river god is depicted</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_eri.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr>
    		<td><notr>Lepus, Lep</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Lambda;&alpha;&gamma;&omega;&#771;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Hare<br /><i>shown twice: once between Orion's legs, once separately; for the visualisation we have removed the hare between Orion's legs. The separately illustrated hare runs in the direction of writing, but the hare between Orion's legs runs in the direction of the true course of the sun. The constellation figure should therefore be thought of as mirrored in relation to the illustration in the book: this can be seen in the sketch of the hare between Orion's legs.</i></td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_lep.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Canis Maior, CMa</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Dog<br />mirrored depiction of a little dog</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cma.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Canis Minor (Procyon), CMi</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&rho;&omicron;&kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>The star in front of the dog <br /> mirrored depiction<br />(an asterism of three stars forming a small dog is already mentioned by Eratosthenes, but the name of the figure was always "Prokyon"). Procyon is a Greek term (with "k") latinized.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cmi.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Argo, Arg</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&rho;&gamma;&omega;</notr></td>
    		<td>Ship &quot;Argo&quot;<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_arg.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Hydra, Crater, Corvus<br />Hya, Crt, Crv</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &Kappa;&rho;&alpha;&tau;&#942;&rho;, &Kappa;&oacute;&rho;&alpha;&xi;</notr></td>
    		<td>Water Snake, a particular vessel (crater), Raven</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_hya.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Centaurus, Cen</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&#941;&nu;&tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Kentauros<br />apparently the constellations that are double have been painted only once: Sagittarius is depicted as centaur in the manuscript, the constellation Centaurus (a centaur with a sacrificial animal) is not depicted<br />(likewise, Andromeda is depicted but not Virgo)</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Lupus, Lup</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Theta;&eta;&rho;&#943;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>monster<br />(in the Greek original (Aratos, ~300 BCE), Lupus is not a standalone constellation but a composite of the constellation of Centaurus that is missing here).</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Ara, Ara</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Theta;&upsilon;&mu;&iota;&alpha;&tau;&#942;&rho;&iota;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Altar</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_ara.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Corona Australis, CrA</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf; &Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Southern Crown (Latin), Southern Wreath (Greek)</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Piscis Austrinus, PsA</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf; &#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Southern Fish<br />(had been "Great Fish" for Eratosthenes and Aratus in Greek)<br />It is so darkly drawn here that you would not recognise it in the stars. That is why the colours have been dipped into a blue-green scheme instead of the original red-purple one.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_psA.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    </table>
    </p>
en_AU: The figures are drawn from a non-preserved Roman model, but not from a globe, so that there is no fit to the stars. The stars themselves are only symbolically distributed on the figures, i.e. the number of stars per figure is marked in the manuscript in the form of applied gold leaves. The gold leaves, however, are not located at the true places of the stars in view of the figure in the sky, but are only indicated summarily. Elly Decker's essay discusses her proposed identifications in detail.
    
    <p><img width="800" src="illustrations/descr_pics/Aratea fol. 3v und 4r.jpg"/></p>
    <p><i>A sample page from the medieval manuscript shows the three cushion images Draco, Ursa Maior and Ursa Minor with the text opposite.</i></p>
    
    ### How this Sky Culture was made
    
    The illustrations of the individual figures were taken directly from the manuscript (provided by Prof. D. Blume, Jena, for planetarium applications). Stellarium works with point coordinates for stars in the catalogue of the astrometry satellite HIPPARCOS, so that the historical drawings have to be locked at three points each. Some of the flat book illustrations had to be distorted slightly on the planetarium dome to fit the stars. Except for the illustration of Scorpius and Ophiuchus, an approximate adjustment was possible.
    
     In a planetarium dome, i.e. against a dark background, the dark blue and black parts of the manuscript are not recognisable. That is why these parts (e.g. the crab as a figure, the horns of the ibex, the goats of the carter...) were colour-inverted. The female bears, which are supposed to be dark, have only been shifted slightly into the red. How the image looks in the original (with its lapis lazuli blue background and the original dark colours) is shown in the table below.
    
    There are some constellations in the Leiden Aratea, in particular Cen + Lup, Vir, Lib are leaving a huge gap in the sky.
    Both, Virgo and Centaur are probably not painted because the painter thought it were variants of the images of Sgr (Cen) and And (Vir).
    The artist of the Leiden Aratea never mapped the images onto the stars.
    In order to make these depictions understandable for us, I mapped them in Stellarium and added the names and stickfigures of the constellations and the names of individual stars from the Almagest.
    The Almagest is a book of mathematical astronomy of the 2nd century (i.e. the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian) while Aratos's poem describes a much earlier (~300 BCE) Greek sky culture.
    Both, the Almagest and the poem, are written in Greek originally but the Leiden Aratea presumably refers to a Latin translation of Aratus' poem and Roman artwork.
    
    The following table lists the original names of the constellations in columns 2 and 3. constellations, in column 4 the illustration in the manuscript.
    
    <p>
    <table>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><b>Latin Name, Abbreviation</b></td>
    		<td><b>Original Greek Name</b></td>
    		<td><b>Translation</b> (literally)</td>
    		<td><b>Picture</b></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Ursa Minor, Ursa Maior, Draco<br />UMi, UMa, Dra</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Mu;&iota;&kappa;&rho;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &Mu;&epsilon;&gamma;&alpha;&lambda;&#942; &#702;&#714;&Alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &Delta;&rho;&#940;&kappa;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Little She-Bear, Great She-Bear, Dragon (Latin) / Snake (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_dra.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>King Cepheus, Cep</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&phi;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Kepheus</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cep.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Bootes, Boo</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Beta;&omicron;&#974;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Ox driver (Latin), Ploughing Man (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_boo.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Northern Crown, CrB</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Crown (Latin), Wreath (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_crB.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Hercules, Her</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Epsilon;&nu;&gamma;&#972;&nu;&alpha;&sigma;&iota;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Hercules (Latin), Kneeler (Greek)<br />The star between the legs is a well-known mistake in the picture: for this figure the draughtsman obviously took Bootes as a model; leg position, shepherd's crook (instead of club for Hercules) and star between the knees are the same.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_her.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Lyra, Lyr</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Lambda;&#973;&rho;&alpha;</notr></td>
    		<td>Lyre</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_lyr.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cygnus, Cyg</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&#714;&Omicron;&rho;&nu;&iota;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Bird [not specified]</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cyg.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cassiopeia, Cas</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&sigma;&sigma;&iota;&#941;&pi;&epsilon;&iota;&alpha;</notr></td>
    		<td>Queen Kassiepeia </td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cas.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Perseus, Per</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&epsilon;&rho;&sigma;&epsilon;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Perseus<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_per.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Auriga, Aur</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&Eta;&nu;&#943;&omicron;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Charioteer</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_aur.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Aquila et Sagitta,<br />Aql </notr>and<notr> Sge</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&epsilon;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf; </notr>and<notr> &#702;&Omicron;&iota;&sigma;&tau;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Eagle with Arrow</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_aql.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Delphinus, Del</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Delta;&epsilon;&lambda;&phi;&#943;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Dolphin <br /> In the Greek original (Aratos, ~300 BCE), there was no constellation Equuleus. The Farnese Globe (as well as the Mainz Globe and the Kugel Globe) depicts the Dolphin rather largely, covering the space of Equ. That is why I chose to follow this Aratean tradition also for the Leiden Aratea.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_del.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Pegasus, Peg</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Iota;&pi;&pi;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Pegasus (name of a winged horse; Latin), a Horse (Greek)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_peg.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Andromeda, And</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&nu;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&mu;&#941;&delta;&alpha;</notr></td>
    		<td>Princess Andromeda</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_and.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Triangulum, Tri</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Tau;&rho;&#943;&gamma;&omega;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Triangle</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_tri.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Aries, Ari</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&rho;&iota;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Ram<br />(jumping through a ring which is a symbol for the year; Roman new year was in spring).</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_ari.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Taurus, Tau</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&#771;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Bull</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_tau.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>M45, </notr>Pleiades</td>
    		<td></td>
    		<td>The Pleiades<br />or Seven Sisters</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_plei.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Gemini, Gem</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Delta;&#943;&delta;&upsilon;&mu;&omicron;&iota;</notr></td>
    		<td>Twins</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_gem.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cancer, Cnc</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&alpha;&rho;&kappa;&#943;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Cancer<br /><i>The cancer was lightened.</i></td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cnc.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Leo, Leo</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Lambda;&#941;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Lion<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_leo.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Virgo, Vir</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&alpha;&rho;&theta;&#941;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Young Lady<br />Apparently, the manuscript only contains one drawing for figures that are depicted twice: like Sagittarius is depicted as centaur and the constellation Centaur is missing, Andromeda is painted as young lady but the second young lady for the constellation of Virgo is missing.</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Libra, Lib</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Chi;&eta;&lambda;&alpha;&#943;</notr></td>
    		<td>Balance (Latin, since 1st century CE in Geminos and Manilius; transferred in a style epoch of Babylonian revival),
    		<br />Claws [of the Scorpion] (Greek)<br />The claws of the Scorpion indeed to cover this area.</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Ophiuchus et Serpens, Scorpius,<br />Oph + Ser </notr>and<notr> Sco</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&omicron;&#973;&chi;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &#702;&#714;&Omicron;&phi;&iota;&sigmaf; </notr>and<notr> &Sigma;&kappa;&omicron;&rho;&pi;&#943;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Snake Carrier and Scorpion (both in the zodiac ever since)<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_oph.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Sagittarius, Sgr</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Tau;&omicron;&xi;&#972;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Archer</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_sgr.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Capricornus, Cap</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Alpha;&#943;&gamma;&#972;&kappa;&epsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>The Goat-Horned One</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cap.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Aquarius, Aqr</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&chi;&#972;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Water Pourer<br />mirrored depiction (although front view)</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_aqr.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Pisces, Psc</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&epsilon;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Fishes</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_psc.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Cetus, Cet</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&eta;&#771;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>a Sea Monster named Cetus</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cet.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Orion, Ori</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Omega;&rho;&#943;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Orion<br /><i>mirrored depiction</i><br />The Hare in this depiction had been deleted and replaced by the Hare from his own single-page painting.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_ori.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Eridanus, Eri</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&omicron;&tau;&alpha;&mu;&#972;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>the river Eridanus (Latin), an unnamed River (Greek);<br />here a river god is depicted</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_eri.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr>
    		<td><notr>Lepus, Lep</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Lambda;&alpha;&gamma;&omega;&#771;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Hare<br /><i>shown twice: once between Orion's legs, once separately; for the visualisation we have removed the hare between Orion's legs. The separately illustrated hare runs in the direction of writing, but the hare between Orion's legs runs in the direction of the true course of the sun. The constellation figure should therefore be thought of as mirrored in relation to the illustration in the book: this can be seen in the sketch of the hare between Orion's legs.</i></td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_lep.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Canis Maior, CMa</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Dog<br />mirrored depiction of a little dog</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cma.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Canis Minor (Procyon), CMi</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Pi;&rho;&omicron;&kappa;&#973;&omega;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>The star in front of the dog <br /> mirrored depiction<br />(an asterism of three stars forming a small dog is already mentioned by Eratosthenes, but the name of the figure was always "Prokyon"). Procyon is a Greek term (with "k") latinised.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_cmi.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Argo, Arg</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#702;&Alpha;&rho;&gamma;&omega;</notr></td>
    		<td>Ship &quot;Argo&quot;<br />mirrored depiction</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_arg.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Hydra, Crater, Corvus<br />Hya, Crt, Crv</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&#703;&#714;&Upsilon;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;, &Kappa;&rho;&alpha;&tau;&#942;&rho;, &Kappa;&oacute;&rho;&alpha;&xi;</notr></td>
    		<td>Water Snake, a particular vessel (crater), Raven</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_hya.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Centaurus, Cen</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Kappa;&#941;&nu;&tau;&alpha;&upsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Kentauros<br />apparently the constellations that are double have been painted only once: Sagittarius is depicted as centaur in the manuscript, the constellation Centaurus (a centaur with a sacrificial animal) is not depicted<br />(likewise, Andromeda is depicted but not Virgo)</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Lupus, Lup</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Theta;&eta;&rho;&#943;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>monster<br />(in the Greek original (Aratos, ~300 BCE), Lupus is not a standalone constellation but a composite of the constellation of Centaurus that is missing here).</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Ara, Ara</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Theta;&upsilon;&mu;&iota;&alpha;&tau;&#942;&rho;&iota;&omicron;&nu;</notr></td>
    		<td>Altar</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_ara.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Corona Australis, CrA</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Sigma;&tau;&#941;&phi;&alpha;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf; &Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Southern Crown (Latin), Southern Wreath (Greek)</td>
    		<td>missing</td>
    	</tr>
    	<tr valign="top">
    		<td><notr>Piscis Austrinus, PsA</notr></td>
    		<td><notr>&Nu;&#972;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf; &#702;&Iota;&chi;&theta;&#973;&sigmaf;</notr></td>
    		<td>Southern Fish<br />(had been "Great Fish" for Eratosthenes and Aratus in Greek)<br />It is so darkly drawn here that you would not recognise it in the stars. That is why the colours have been dipped into a blue-green scheme instead of the original red-purple one.</td>
    		<td><img width="255" src="illustrations/descr_pics/aratea_small_psA.jpg"/></td>
    	</tr>
    </table>
    </p>

note: Hawaiian Starlines sky culture introduction section in markdown format
en: These are the star lines developed by Nainoa Thompson and used by the Polynesian Voyaging Society to navigate Polynesian sailing canoes using traditional techniques of non instrument navigation across thousands of miles of open ocean. For years, Hawaiian navigators have memorized the position of stars as they rise and set in order to know oneʻs bearing.   Wayfinder Nainoa Thompson developed a system of organization to help memorize the position of stars throughout the celestial sphere by dividing the sky into four evenly sized star lines.
en_AU: These are the star lines developed by Nainoa Thompson and used by the Polynesian Voyaging Society to navigate Polynesian sailing canoes using traditional techniques of non instrument navigation across thousands of miles of open ocean. For years, Hawaiian navigators have memorised the position of stars as they rise and set in order to know oneʻs bearing.   Wayfinder Nainoa Thompson developed a system of organisation to help memorise the position of stars throughout the celestial sphere by dividing the sky into four evenly sized star lines.

note: Lokono sky culture introduction section in markdown format
en: <img src="illustrations/lokono_map_1.png" width="277" height="375" align="left"/>The *Lokono*, also known as *Arawak*, are an indigenous people of the Guianas, whose territory stretches along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, from northwestern Guyana, through Suriname, to northwestern French Guiana (see map).[#1] The Lokono speak a language that belongs to the Arawakan language family&mdash;one of the largest linguistic groupings on the continent. Like many of their linguistic relatives, the Lokono are agriculturalists specializing in the farming of manioc (*Manihot esculenta*), who also practice fishing, hunting, and gathering of wild plant. However, as one of the first indigenous groups that was encountered by the Europeans at the time of conquest, the Lokono have been in contact with non-indigenous populations for over 500 years.[#2] This contact has intensified in the last century, leading to a substantial loss of the Lokono language, traditional material and immaterial culture, changes in subsistence practices, and in particular to the disappearance of *medicine-men*&mdash;the traditional carriers of spiritual knowledge, most likely including ethnoastronomical knowledge. As a consequence, the modern knowledge about celestial bodies appears to be but a fraction of what the Lokono knew about stars in the past. Several constellations mentioned in older sources are forgotten or are only known from their names, while the combinations of stars they represent and the oral traditions explaining their origin and significance have been forgotten. The Skyculture presented here includes only identified constellations but the following description provides a more comprehensive account of Lokono astronomical knowledge including information extracted from historical sources about all the celestial objects named in the table below.
en_AU: <img src="illustrations/lokono_map_1.png" width="277" height="375" align="left"/>The *Lokono*, also known as *Arawak*, are an indigenous people of the Guianas, whose territory stretches along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, from northwestern Guyana, through Suriname, to northwestern French Guiana (see map).[#1] The Lokono speak a language that belongs to the Arawakan language family&mdash;one of the largest linguistic groupings on the continent. Like many of their linguistic relatives, the Lokono are agriculturalists specialising in the farming of manioc (*Manihot esculenta*), who also practice fishing, hunting, and gathering of wild plant. However, as one of the first indigenous groups that was encountered by the Europeans at the time of conquest, the Lokono have been in contact with non-indigenous populations for over 500 years.[#2] This contact has intensified in the last century, leading to a substantial loss of the Lokono language, traditional material and immaterial culture, changes in subsistence practices, and in particular to the disappearance of *medicine-men*&mdash;the traditional carriers of spiritual knowledge, most likely including ethnoastronomical knowledge. As a consequence, the modern knowledge about celestial bodies appears to be but a fraction of what the Lokono knew about stars in the past. Several constellations mentioned in older sources are forgotten or are only known from their names, while the combinations of stars they represent and the oral traditions explaining their origin and significance have been forgotten. The Skyculture presented here includes only identified constellations but the following description provides a more comprehensive account of Lokono astronomical knowledge including information extracted from historical sources about all the celestial objects named in the table below.

note: Lokono sky culture authors section in markdown format
en: This sky culture was contributed by [Konrad Rybka](https://uva.academia.edu/KonradRybka) and produced with the help of Lokono speakers in Suriname (Cassipora) and Guyana (Wakapoa). The research was carried out as part of the project supported by a Rubicon postdoctoral grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (project number 446-15-012). Quote as: Rybka, Konrad 2018. *Lokono sky culture: a description of Lokono ethnoastronomical knowledge for Stellarium software.*  Version 1.0
en_AU: This sky culture was contributed by [Konrad Rybka](https://uva.academia.edu/KonradRybka) and produced with the help of Lokono speakers in Suriname (Cassipora) and Guyana (Wakapoa). The research was carried out as part of the project supported by a Rubicon postdoctoral grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (project number 446-15-012). Quote as: Rybka, Konrad 2018. *Lokono sky culture: a description of Lokono ethnoastronomical knowledge for Stellarium software.*  Version 1.0

note: Lokono sky culture references section in markdown format
en:  - [#1]: Rybka, Konrad. 2015. [“State-of-the-Art in the Development of the Lokono Language.”](https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/24635) Language Documentation and Conservation 9: 110–13.
     - [#2]: Rybka, Konrad. 2017. [“Contact-Induced Phenomena in Lokono (Arawakan).”](https://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9781614514886/9781614514886-010/9781614514886-010.xml) In Boundaries and Bridges, edited by Kofi Yakpo and Pieter C. Muysken. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp 257-281.
     - [#3]: Navarette, Rodrigo Pérez de. 1964. “Relación de Las Provicias y Naciones Que Los Indios Llamados Aruacas [Tienen] [...].” In Relaciones Geográficas de Venezuela, edited by Antonio Arellano Moreno, 83–87. Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia.
     - [#4]: Roth, Walter Edmund. 1924. An Introductory Study of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guiana Indians. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
     - [#5]: Goeje, Claudius Henricus de. 1943. Philosophy, Initiation and Myths of the Indians of Guiana and Adjacent Countries. Archives Internationales d’ethnographie. 44.
     - [#6]: Abbenhuis, M.F. 1939. Arawakken in Suriname: Enquête-Materiaal Voor Een Volkenkundige Studie. Paramaribo: Leo Victor.
     - [#7]: Coll, Cornelius van. 1903. “Gegevens over Land En Volk van Suriname I - Suriname’s Oorspronkelijke Bevolking.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 55 (1): 453–529.
     - [#8]: Goeje, Claudius Henricus de. 1928. The Arawak Language of Guiana. Amsterdam: Uitgave van der Koninklijke Akademie von Wetenschappen te Amsterdam.
     - [#9]: Brett, William Henry. 1880. Legends and Myths of the Aboriginal Indians of British Guiana. London: Williams Wells Gardner.
     - [#10]: Roth, Walter Edmund. 1915. An Inquiry into the Animism and Folk-Lore of the Guiana Indians. Annual Report, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology 30. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
     - [#11]: Goeje, Claudius Henricus de. 1942. “De Inwijding Tot Medicijnman Bij de Arawakken (Guyana) in Tekst En Mythe.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië 101: 211–76.
     - [#12]: Im Thurn, Everard Ferdinand. 1883. Among the Indians of Guiana: Being Sketches Chiefly Anthropologic from the Interior of British Guiana. London: K. Paul, Trench & Company.
     - [#13]: Laet, Joannes de. 1633. Novus Orbis, Seu Descriptionis Indiae Occidentalis Libri XVIII. Leiden: Apud Elzevirios.
     - [#14]: Brett, William Henry. 1868. The Indian Tribes of Guiana: Their Condition and Habits. London: Bell and Daldy.
     - [#15]: Baarle, Peter van, Mauricius Alberto Sabajo, van der Stap Gerdy, Sabajo Andreas L., and Sabajo Lucia L. 1989. Arhwaka lokonong djang: Arowakse taalkursus en woordenboek. Haarlem; Amsterdam: Sociaal-culturele Vereniging Ikyoshie ; Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap, Universiteit van Amsterdam.
     - [#16]: Dance, Charles D. 1881. Chapters from a Guianese Log Book. Georgetown, Guyana.
     - [#17]: Penard, Frederik Paul, and Arthur Philip Penard. 1907. De Menschetende Aanbidders Der Zonneslang. Paramaribo: H.B. Heyde.
     - [#18]: Magaña, Edmundo, and Fabiola Jara. 1982. “The Carib sky.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 68 (1): 105–32.
     - [#19]: Bennett, John P. 1995. Twenty-Eight Lessons in Loko (Arawak): A Teaching Guide. Georgetown, Guyana: Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology.
     - [#20]: Ahlbrinck, Willem. 1931. Encyclopaedie Der Karaïben. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen.
     - [#21]: Schumann, Christian Ludwig. 1882. “Arawakish-Deutsches Wörterbuch.” In Grammaires Et Vocabulaires Roucouyenne, Arrouague, Piapoco Et D’autres Langues De La Région Des Guyanes, Par J. Crevaux, P . Sagot, L. Adam..., edited by Jules Nicolas Crevaux, Paul Antoine Sagot, and Lucien Adam, 7–165. Paris: Maisonneuve.
     - [#22]: Courtz, H. 2008. A Carib Grammar and Dictionary. Toronto, ON, Canada: Magoria Books.
     - [#23]: Arawak manuscripts, American Philosophical Society, manuscript number:[ Mss.498.3.Sch8. ](https://search.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.498.3.Sch8-ead.xml)Page 562 in the original manuscript, which corresponds to page 576 in the digitalized document. The image was reduced in size, cropped, and reproduced here with the kind permission of the American Philosophical Society.
en_AU:  - [#1]: Rybka, Konrad. 2015. [“State-of-the-Art in the Development of the Lokono Language.”](https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/24635) Language Documentation and Conservation 9: 110–13.
     - [#2]: Rybka, Konrad. 2017. [“Contact-Induced Phenomena in Lokono (Arawakan).”](https://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9781614514886/9781614514886-010/9781614514886-010.xml) In Boundaries and Bridges, edited by Kofi Yakpo and Pieter C. Muysken. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp 257-281.
     - [#3]: Navarette, Rodrigo Pérez de. 1964. “Relación de Las Provicias y Naciones Que Los Indios Llamados Aruacas [Tienen] [...].” In Relaciones Geográficas de Venezuela, edited by Antonio Arellano Moreno, 83–87. Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia.
     - [#4]: Roth, Walter Edmund. 1924. An Introductory Study of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guiana Indians. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
     - [#5]: Goeje, Claudius Henricus de. 1943. Philosophy, Initiation and Myths of the Indians of Guiana and Adjacent Countries. Archives Internationales d’ethnographie. 44.
     - [#6]: Abbenhuis, M.F. 1939. Arawakken in Suriname: Enquête-Materiaal Voor Een Volkenkundige Studie. Paramaribo: Leo Victor.
     - [#7]: Coll, Cornelius van. 1903. “Gegevens over Land En Volk van Suriname I - Suriname’s Oorspronkelijke Bevolking.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 55 (1): 453–529.
     - [#8]: Goeje, Claudius Henricus de. 1928. The Arawak Language of Guiana. Amsterdam: Uitgave van der Koninklijke Akademie von Wetenschappen te Amsterdam.
     - [#9]: Brett, William Henry. 1880. Legends and Myths of the Aboriginal Indians of British Guiana. London: Williams Wells Gardner.
     - [#10]: Roth, Walter Edmund. 1915. An Inquiry into the Animism and Folk-Lore of the Guiana Indians. Annual Report, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology 30. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
     - [#11]: Goeje, Claudius Henricus de. 1942. “De Inwijding Tot Medicijnman Bij de Arawakken (Guyana) in Tekst En Mythe.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië 101: 211–76.
     - [#12]: Im Thurn, Everard Ferdinand. 1883. Among the Indians of Guiana: Being Sketches Chiefly Anthropologic from the Interior of British Guiana. London: K. Paul, Trench & Company.
     - [#13]: Laet, Joannes de. 1633. Novus Orbis, Seu Descriptionis Indiae Occidentalis Libri XVIII. Leiden: Apud Elzevirios.
     - [#14]: Brett, William Henry. 1868. The Indian Tribes of Guiana: Their Condition and Habits. London: Bell and Daldy.
     - [#15]: Baarle, Peter van, Mauricius Alberto Sabajo, van der Stap Gerdy, Sabajo Andreas L., and Sabajo Lucia L. 1989. Arhwaka lokonong djang: Arowakse taalkursus en woordenboek. Haarlem; Amsterdam: Sociaal-culturele Vereniging Ikyoshie ; Instituut voor Algemene Taalwetenschap, Universiteit van Amsterdam.
     - [#16]: Dance, Charles D. 1881. Chapters from a Guianese Log Book. Georgetown, Guyana.
     - [#17]: Penard, Frederik Paul, and Arthur Philip Penard. 1907. De Menschetende Aanbidders Der Zonneslang. Paramaribo: H.B. Heyde.
     - [#18]: Magaña, Edmundo, and Fabiola Jara. 1982. “The Carib sky.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 68 (1): 105–32.
     - [#19]: Bennett, John P. 1995. Twenty-Eight Lessons in Loko (Arawak): A Teaching Guide. Georgetown, Guyana: Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology.
     - [#20]: Ahlbrinck, Willem. 1931. Encyclopaedie Der Karaïben. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen.
     - [#21]: Schumann, Christian Ludwig. 1882. “Arawakish-Deutsches Wörterbuch.” In Grammaires Et Vocabulaires Roucouyenne, Arrouague, Piapoco Et D’autres Langues De La Région Des Guyanes, Par J. Crevaux, P . Sagot, L. Adam..., edited by Jules Nicolas Crevaux, Paul Antoine Sagot, and Lucien Adam, 7–165. Paris: Maisonneuve.
     - [#22]: Courtz, H. 2008. A Carib Grammar and Dictionary. Toronto, ON, Canada: Magoria Books.
     - [#23]: Arawak manuscripts, American Philosophical Society, manuscript number:[ Mss.498.3.Sch8. ](https://search.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.498.3.Sch8-ead.xml)Page 562 in the original manuscript, which corresponds to page 576 in the digitalised document. The image was reduced in size, cropped, and reproduced here with the kind permission of the American Philosophical Society.

note: Macedonian sky culture introduction section in markdown format
en: Ethnoastronomical research among Macedonian people began in 1982, organized by the Planetarium at Youth Cultural Centre. In the past years, around 140 villages in Republic of Macedonia have been visited and over 1500 inhabitants have been interviewed and surveyed. All collected information from the population have been published in the book “Sky over Macedonia” (Cenev G, 2004). An integral part of this book is the Sky map of Macedonian people which has been reconstructed based on the descriptions of constellations known to elderly inhabitants of Macedonian villages (Cenev G., 2000).
en_AU: Ethnoastronomical research among Macedonian people began in 1982, organised by the Planetarium at Youth Cultural Centre. In the past years, around 140 villages in Republic of Macedonia have been visited and over 1500 inhabitants have been interviewed and surveyed. All collected information from the population have been published in the book “Sky over Macedonia” (Cenev G, 2004). An integral part of this book is the Sky map of Macedonian people which has been reconstructed based on the descriptions of constellations known to elderly inhabitants of Macedonian villages (Cenev G., 2000).

note: Modern sky culture description section in markdown format
en: The modern sky culture divides the celestial sphere into 88 areas of various sizes called constellations, each with precise boundary, issued by the International Astronomical Union in 1922. These constellations have become the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    The constellations in use today are based mainly on ancient Greek constellations depicted by Ptolemy in his book the Almagest during the 2nd century CE. In the subsequent centuries, this book has been translated from Greek into Arabic (6th to 9th century) and later to medieval Latin. In the Arabic more than in the Latin tradition, the Ptolemaic figures were enriched and transformed by native Arabic constellations and star names.
    
    In the 16-18th centuries, European astronomers suggested new constellations to fill the gaps between northern constellations (e.g. the constellation of "the lynx" for an area close to the Great Bear but with stars so faint that you would need the eyes of a lynx to see them) and also created new constellations in the southern part of the sky which had not been visible to Ptolemy. These new constellations were usually named after new technical inventions of the early modern period (e.g. a chemical furnace, a balloon, an air pump) or exotic animals (e.g. a chamaeleon, a tucan, a paradise bird). Among them several constellations were also named with political consideration to honor certain kings or patrons.
    
    In the beginning of the 20th century, the IAU (International Astronomical Union) aimed for a large clean-up: in 1922, it officially accepted the list of 88 constellation names. In 1928 it also defined precise constellation boundaries [#40] still in use today.
    
    ### Extras
    
    In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy in Alexandria published a multi-volume book which summarised the astronomical knowledge of the time, rooted in a tradition of mathematical astronomy since Hipparchus (at least 265 years earlier). In the subsequent centuries, this book has been translated from Greek into Arabic (6th to 9th century), from Arabic into Latin, and later, from the original ancient Greek into medieval Latin. Due to this transformation, it is now known under the artificial name Almagest, derived from the Arabic title [#46].
    
    The Almagest star catalogue (books VII and VIII) has been depicted many times in the Islamic as well as in the Christian astronomical traditions. Often, the figures were re-drawn in order to adapt them to the taste of art of the epoch. In the Arabic more than in the Latin tradition, the Ptolemaic figures were enriched and transformed by native Arabic constellations and star names. Therefore, this sky culture displays a modern descendant of the Ptolemaic one with traces of translations, misunderstandings, transformations, and deliberate additions.
    
    In 1603 the lawyer and hobby astronomer Johann Bayer from Augsburg, Germany, made a new celestial atlas, called Uranometria [#41]. In this atlas, he introduced a systematic naming of stars starting with alpha, the brightest, beta, the second brightest, gamma, the third ... within a constellation. Subsequently, it was established to name a star with a Greek letter and the Latin constellation name in casus genitive.
    
    In the 18th century, the century of great atlases (Flamsteed, Fortin, Bode: [#42][#43]), new constellations were added to fill the gaps between northern constellations. Additionally, there were suggestions to create new constellations in the southern part of the sky which had not been visible to Ptolemy. European astronomers visited the European colonies and instead of asking the native people for their constellations, the Europeans were creative. This way, many new technical inventions of the early modern period were depicted in constellations (e.g. a chemical furnace, a balloon, an air pump) as well as exotic animals (e.g. a chamaeleon, a tucan, a paradise bird).
    
    The problem was that sometimes astronomers did not agree with each other and, thus, atlases showed deviations from each other.
    
    After many centuries of astronomers taking liberties in interpretation of the Ptolemaic original, there were many variants of constellations. As constellations are a positioning system, i.e. astronomers describe positions in the sky relative to stars and stars relative to constellations (like "Betelgeuse", Orion's right shoulder), it is necessary to use constellation names and star names uniformly all over the world.
    
    In the "Fin de siècle", there were upcoming suggestions in the astronomical community to unify the system of constellations and star names [#44].
    
    The IAU, only founded in 1919, in 1928 defined the boundaries of these areas [#43] and not the way of drawing artwork or connecting lines within them. Consequently several sub-cultures of painting figures and drawing simplified stickfigures were developed during the 20th and 21st century. We provide some of them as further sky cultures.
    
    ### Constellations
    
    These constellations are based mainly on the Ptolemaic tradition which had been used in all three Abrahamitic religions and, thus, was common in the Near East, in Europe and its colonies on all continents. However, between the ancient Greek constellations there were gaps of areas with only faint stars belonging to no constellation.[#47] In the Modern Epoch, several astronomers suggested constellation figures for these gaps, among them several political constellations to the honor of certain kings or patrons. In the late 19th century, the astronomical research community aimed for a huge clean-up to avoid ambiguities in assigning stars to constellations.
    
    In 1922, the IAU officially approved the list of 88 constellation names and their official abbreviations with three letters. The only remaining political constellation is Scutum, the shield of a Polish king but without mentioning the political reference anymore. The Belgian priest E. Delporte got the task to define constellation boundaries according to coordinates. In 1928, he finished the work, based on an atlas from Argentina [#51], and the IAU accepted his delimitations [#40].
    
    These "constellations" are naked areas in the sky without any stick figures or depictions [#44]. The borders simply follow the lines of right ascension and declination from the epoch 1875.0. Precession causes a slowly increasing deviation from the originally rectilinear grid. These constellations became the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    Stellarium by default displays the precise RA-DEC-boundaries and a set of artwork constellations on the basis of Ptolemaic figures but following our contemporary taste of art.
    
    ### Asterisms
    
    The term "asterism" (assembly of stars) can sometimes be used synonymously to "constellation". In the modern use it describes a figure which is not part of the official canon. Sometimes an asterism is a part of a constellation, e.g. the Big Dipper as part of Ursa Major, or Great Square as part of Pegasus. Other asterisms span over several constellations, e.g. the Summer Triangle or Winter Hexagon. Yet others are only visible in binoculars or telescopes and are aptly named "telescopic asterism", e.g. the Coathanger. They are often discussed in the observing columns of popular astronomy magazines.
    
    ### Ray Helpers
    
    Seasoned observers can find their way around the sky easily. One mnemonic tool are associative chains of stars that span large distances. We show them as "ray helpers". These are not standardized.
    
    ### Proper names of stars
    
    Ptolemy's star catalogue had the layout of a table listing the description of the star's position in the constellation's figure, the ecliptical coordinates, and the magnitude e.g.: "The star at the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor", "Gem 0 1/6, +66", "Mag 3".
    
    In most cases, the star names evolved by astronomer's systematical abbreviations of these descriptions, e.g., a first astronomer abbreviated in a text "tip of the tail", a next astronomer drew a map with less space and wrote only "tail" next to the star and this name remained. Over centuries, these descriptions were translated into Arabic and Latin, and in some cases the translators or scribes made mistakes because of misreading or misspelling of the Arabic words (e.g. the Arabic "yad al gauza", the hand of the giant woman, was mangled to the common term "Betelgeuse").
    
    However, there are also a few original Greek words like the red star "Antares", the counterpart of Ares (Mars), and even a few original Babylonian terms like "Shargaz", the Sting, in Scorpius. Our modern, most recent IAU star names [#45] are a renewed mixture, also with influences or even politically wanted additions of star names from the non-Ptolemaic sky cultures, e.g. the traditional Pingsing, a Chinese star name for a star in Hydra (its meaning is only "star", a reminescence to his lonely position), or newly adopted star names from Polynesian, Hawaiian, or Aboriginal cultures for names of stars with exoplanets.
    
    The IAU is the only scientifically accepted authority to assign new names to stars. Commercial exploits like "star name registries", who sell stars for commemorative purposes or as gifts, only sell printed pieces of paper. These names are not approved and never used by scientists.
en_AU: The modern sky culture divides the celestial sphere into 88 areas of various sizes called constellations, each with precise boundary, issued by the International Astronomical Union in 1922. These constellations have become the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    The constellations in use today are based mainly on ancient Greek constellations depicted by Ptolemy in his book the Almagest during the 2nd century CE. In the subsequent centuries, this book has been translated from Greek into Arabic (6th to 9th century) and later to medieval Latin. In the Arabic more than in the Latin tradition, the Ptolemaic figures were enriched and transformed by native Arabic constellations and star names.
    
    In the 16-18th centuries, European astronomers suggested new constellations to fill the gaps between northern constellations (e.g. the constellation of "the lynx" for an area close to the Great Bear but with stars so faint that you would need the eyes of a lynx to see them) and also created new constellations in the southern part of the sky which had not been visible to Ptolemy. These new constellations were usually named after new technical inventions of the early modern period (e.g. a chemical furnace, a balloon, an air pump) or exotic animals (e.g. a chamaeleon, a tucan, a paradise bird). Among them several constellations were also named with political consideration to honour certain kings or patrons.
    
    In the beginning of the 20th century, the IAU (International Astronomical Union) aimed for a large clean-up: in 1922, it officially accepted the list of 88 constellation names. In 1928 it also defined precise constellation boundaries [#40] still in use today.
    
    ### Extras
    
    In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy in Alexandria published a multi-volume book which summarised the astronomical knowledge of the time, rooted in a tradition of mathematical astronomy since Hipparchus (at least 265 years earlier). In the subsequent centuries, this book has been translated from Greek into Arabic (6th to 9th century), from Arabic into Latin, and later, from the original ancient Greek into medieval Latin. Due to this transformation, it is now known under the artificial name Almagest, derived from the Arabic title [#46].
    
    The Almagest star catalogue (books VII and VIII) has been depicted many times in the Islamic as well as in the Christian astronomical traditions. Often, the figures were re-drawn in order to adapt them to the taste of art of the epoch. In the Arabic more than in the Latin tradition, the Ptolemaic figures were enriched and transformed by native Arabic constellations and star names. Therefore, this sky culture displays a modern descendant of the Ptolemaic one with traces of translations, misunderstandings, transformations, and deliberate additions.
    
    In 1603 the lawyer and hobby astronomer Johann Bayer from Augsburg, Germany, made a new celestial atlas, called Uranometria [#41]. In this atlas, he introduced a systematic naming of stars starting with alpha, the brightest, beta, the second brightest, gamma, the third ... within a constellation. Subsequently, it was established to name a star with a Greek letter and the Latin constellation name in casus genitive.
    
    In the 18th century, the century of great atlases (Flamsteed, Fortin, Bode: [#42][#43]), new constellations were added to fill the gaps between northern constellations. Additionally, there were suggestions to create new constellations in the southern part of the sky which had not been visible to Ptolemy. European astronomers visited the European colonies and instead of asking the native people for their constellations, the Europeans were creative. This way, many new technical inventions of the early modern period were depicted in constellations (e.g. a chemical furnace, a balloon, an air pump) as well as exotic animals (e.g. a chamaeleon, a tucan, a paradise bird).
    
    The problem was that sometimes astronomers did not agree with each other and, thus, atlases showed deviations from each other.
    
    After many centuries of astronomers taking liberties in interpretation of the Ptolemaic original, there were many variants of constellations. As constellations are a positioning system, i.e. astronomers describe positions in the sky relative to stars and stars relative to constellations (like "Betelgeuse", Orion's right shoulder), it is necessary to use constellation names and star names uniformly all over the world.
    
    In the "Fin de siècle", there were upcoming suggestions in the astronomical community to unify the system of constellations and star names [#44].
    
    The IAU, only founded in 1919, in 1928 defined the boundaries of these areas [#43] and not the way of drawing artwork or connecting lines within them. Consequently several sub-cultures of painting figures and drawing simplified stickfigures were developed during the 20th and 21st century. We provide some of them as further sky cultures.
    
    ### Constellations
    
    These constellations are based mainly on the Ptolemaic tradition which had been used in all three Abrahamitic religions and, thus, was common in the Near East, in Europe and its colonies on all continents. However, between the ancient Greek constellations there were gaps of areas with only faint stars belonging to no constellation.[#47] In the Modern Epoch, several astronomers suggested constellation figures for these gaps, among them several political constellations to the honour of certain kings or patrons. In the late 19th century, the astronomical research community aimed for a huge clean-up to avoid ambiguities in assigning stars to constellations.
    
    In 1922, the IAU officially approved the list of 88 constellation names and their official abbreviations with three letters. The only remaining political constellation is Scutum, the shield of a Polish king but without mentioning the political reference anymore. The Belgian priest E. Delporte got the task to define constellation boundaries according to coordinates. In 1928, he finished the work, based on an atlas from Argentina [#51], and the IAU accepted his delimitations [#40].
    
    These "constellations" are naked areas in the sky without any stick figures or depictions [#44]. The borders simply follow the lines of right ascension and declination from the epoch 1875.0. Precession causes a slowly increasing deviation from the originally rectilinear grid. These constellations became the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    Stellarium by default displays the precise RA-DEC-boundaries and a set of artwork constellations on the basis of Ptolemaic figures but following our contemporary taste of art.
    
    ### Asterisms
    
    The term "asterism" (assembly of stars) can sometimes be used synonymously to "constellation". In the modern use it describes a figure which is not part of the official canon. Sometimes an asterism is a part of a constellation, e.g. the Big Dipper as part of Ursa Major, or Great Square as part of Pegasus. Other asterisms span over several constellations, e.g. the Summer Triangle or Winter Hexagon. Yet others are only visible in binoculars or telescopes and are aptly named "telescopic asterism", e.g. the Coathanger. They are often discussed in the observing columns of popular astronomy magazines.
    
    ### Ray Helpers
    
    Seasoned observers can find their way around the sky easily. One mnemonic tool are associative chains of stars that span large distances. We show them as "ray helpers". These are not standardised.
    
    ### Proper names of stars
    
    Ptolemy's star catalogue had the layout of a table listing the description of the star's position in the constellation's figure, the ecliptical coordinates, and the magnitude e.g.: "The star at the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor", "Gem 0 1/6, +66", "Mag 3".
    
    In most cases, the star names evolved by astronomer's systematical abbreviations of these descriptions, e.g., a first astronomer abbreviated in a text "tip of the tail", a next astronomer drew a map with less space and wrote only "tail" next to the star and this name remained. Over centuries, these descriptions were translated into Arabic and Latin, and in some cases the translators or scribes made mistakes because of misreading or misspelling of the Arabic words (e.g. the Arabic "yad al gauza", the hand of the giant woman, was mangled to the common term "Betelgeuse").
    
    However, there are also a few original Greek words like the red star "Antares", the counterpart of Ares (Mars), and even a few original Babylonian terms like "Shargaz", the Sting, in Scorpius. Our modern, most recent IAU star names [#45] are a renewed mixture, also with influences or even politically wanted additions of star names from the non-Ptolemaic sky cultures, e.g. the traditional Pingsing, a Chinese star name for a star in Hydra (its meaning is only "star", a reminescence to his lonely position), or newly adopted star names from Polynesian, Hawaiian, or Aboriginal cultures for names of stars with exoplanets.
    
    The IAU is the only scientifically accepted authority to assign new names to stars. Commercial exploits like "star name registries", who sell stars for commemorative purposes or as gifts, only sell printed pieces of paper. These names are not approved and never used by scientists.

note: Modern (IAU) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: The modern sky culture divides the celestial sphere into 88 areas of various sizes called constellations, each with precise boundary, issued by the International Astronomical Union in 1922. These constellations have become the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    The constellations in use today are based mainly on ancient Greek constellations depicted by Ptolemy in his book the Almagest during the 2nd century CE. In the subsequent centuries, this book has been translated from Greek into Arabic (6th to 9th century) and later to medieval Latin. In the Arabic more than in the Latin tradition, the Ptolemaic figures were enriched and transformed by native Arabic constellations and star names.
    
    In the 16-18th centuries, European astronomers suggested new constellations to fill the gaps between northern constellations (e.g. the constellation of "the lynx" for an area close to the Great Bear but with stars so faint that you would need the eyes of a lynx to see them) and also created new constellations in the southern part of the sky which had not been visible to Ptolemy. These new constellations were usually named after new technical inventions of the early modern period (e.g. a chemical furnace, a balloon, an air pump) or exotic animals (e.g. a chamaeleon, a tucan, a paradise bird). Among them several constellations were also named with political consideration to honor certain kings or patrons.
    
    In the beginning of the 20th century, the IAU (International Astronomical Union) aimed for a large clean-up: in 1922, it officially accepted the list of 88 constellation names. In 1928 it also defined precise constellation boundaries [#4] still in use today.
    
    ### Constellations
    
    These constellations are based mainly on the Ptolemaic tradition which had been used in all three Abrahamitic religions and, thus, was common in the Near East, in Europe and its colonies on all continents. However, between the ancient Greek constellations there were gaps of areas with only faint stars belonging to no constellation.[#5] In the Modern Epoch, several astronomers suggested constellation figures for these gaps, among them several political constellations to the honor of certain kings or patrons. In the late 19th century, the astronomical research community aimed for a huge clean-up to avoid ambiguities in assigning stars to constellations.
    
    In 1922, the IAU officially approved the list of 88 constellation names and their official abbreviations with three letters. The only remaining political constellation is Scutum, the shield of a Polish king but without mentioning the political reference anymore. The Belgian priest E. Delporte got the task to define constellation boundaries according to coordinates. In 1928, he finished the work, based on an atlas from Argentina [#6], and the IAU accepted his delimitations [#4].
    
    These "constellations" are naked areas in the sky without any stick figures or depictions [#1]. The borders simply follow the lines of right ascension and declination from the epoch 1875.0. Precession causes a slowly increasing deviation from the originally rectilinear grid. These constellations became the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    #### Constellation Figures
    
    In star maps it is common to mark line "patterns" that represent the shapes that give the name to the constellations. However, the IAU defines a constellation by its boundary (indicated by sky coordinates) and not by its pattern and the same constellation may have several variants in its representation.
    
    This sky culture uses constellation figures were produced in collaboration with "Sky and Telescope" magazine (Roger Sinnott and Rick Fienberg) and published at IAU official website [#1]. Alan MacRobert's constellation patterns, were influenced by those of H. A. Rey but in many cases were adjusted to preserve earlier traditions.
    
    ### Proper names of stars
    
    Ptolemy's star catalogue had the layout of a table listing the description of the star's position in the constellation's figure, the ecliptical coordinates, and the magnitude e.g.: "The star at the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor", "Gem 0 1/6, +66", "Mag 3".
    
    In most cases, the star names evolved by astronomer's systematical abbreviations of these descriptions, e.g., a first astronomer abbreviated in a text "tip of the tail", a next astronomer drew a map with less space and wrote only "tail" next to the star and this name remained. Over centuries, these descriptions were translated into Arabic and Latin, and in some cases the translators or scribes made mistakes because of misreading or misspelling of the Arabic words (e.g. the Arabic "yad al gauza", the hand of the giant woman, was mangled to the common term "Betelgeuse").
    
    However, there are also a few original Greek words like the red star "Antares", the counterpart of Ares (Mars), and even a few original Babylonian terms like "Shargaz", the Sting, in Scorpius. Our modern, most recent IAU star names [#7] are a renewed mixture, also with influences or even politically wanted additions of star names from the non-Ptolemaic sky cultures, e.g. the traditional Pingsing, a Chinese star name for a star in Hydra (its meaning is only "star", a reminescence to his lonely position), or newly adopted star names from Polynesian, Hawaiian, or Aboriginal cultures for names of stars with exoplanets.
    
    The IAU is the only scientifically accepted authority to assign new names to stars. Commercial exploits like "star name registries", who sell stars for commemorative purposes or as gifts, only sell printed pieces of paper. These names are not approved and never used by scientists.
    
    ### Proper names of deep-sky objects
    
    Uranometria 2000.0 is an atlas of the 2000.0 era starry sky prepared by the Dutch artist Wil Tirion and published in 1987 by the American publishing house Willmann-Bell, specializing in astronomical literature.
    
    The Atlas of Tirion, respected by astronomers for its accuracy and beauty, is provided with detailed tables and various indexes. The second volume contains three transparent overlays designed for precise measurements. Uranometria 2000.0 contains more than 280,000 stars and more than 30,000 deep-sky objects - in particular, all the objects of the Messier and NGC catalogs.
    
    The second (corrected and most complete) three-volume edition of "Uranometria 2000.0", was published in 2001 under the name "Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas" and contains 280035 stars of both hemispheres up to 9.75<sup>m</sup> in size on a scale of 1.85 cm per declination degree on 220 spreads of A3 format. Particular attention in the atlas is paid to deep-sky objects, there are more than 30 thousand of them in the second edition - many times more than in any other paper atlas.
    
    The third volume of "Uranometria 2000.0" is a guide to deep-sky objects - Deep Sky Field Guide, consisting of tables with scientific data and proper names on objects depicted in the first two volumes [#3].
en_AU: The modern sky culture divides the celestial sphere into 88 areas of various sizes called constellations, each with precise boundary, issued by the International Astronomical Union in 1922. These constellations have become the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    The constellations in use today are based mainly on ancient Greek constellations depicted by Ptolemy in his book the Almagest during the 2nd century CE. In the subsequent centuries, this book has been translated from Greek into Arabic (6th to 9th century) and later to medieval Latin. In the Arabic more than in the Latin tradition, the Ptolemaic figures were enriched and transformed by native Arabic constellations and star names.
    
    In the 16-18th centuries, European astronomers suggested new constellations to fill the gaps between northern constellations (e.g. the constellation of "the lynx" for an area close to the Great Bear but with stars so faint that you would need the eyes of a lynx to see them) and also created new constellations in the southern part of the sky which had not been visible to Ptolemy. These new constellations were usually named after new technical inventions of the early modern period (e.g. a chemical furnace, a balloon, an air pump) or exotic animals (e.g. a chamaeleon, a tucan, a paradise bird). Among them several constellations were also named with political consideration to honour certain kings or patrons.
    
    In the beginning of the 20th century, the IAU (International Astronomical Union) aimed for a large clean-up: in 1922, it officially accepted the list of 88 constellation names. In 1928 it also defined precise constellation boundaries [#4] still in use today.
    
    ### Constellations
    
    These constellations are based mainly on the Ptolemaic tradition which had been used in all three Abrahamitic religions and, thus, was common in the Near East, in Europe and its colonies on all continents. However, between the ancient Greek constellations there were gaps of areas with only faint stars belonging to no constellation.[#5] In the Modern Epoch, several astronomers suggested constellation figures for these gaps, among them several political constellations to the honour of certain kings or patrons. In the late 19th century, the astronomical research community aimed for a huge clean-up to avoid ambiguities in assigning stars to constellations.
    
    In 1922, the IAU officially approved the list of 88 constellation names and their official abbreviations with three letters. The only remaining political constellation is Scutum, the shield of a Polish king but without mentioning the political reference anymore. The Belgian priest E. Delporte got the task to define constellation boundaries according to coordinates. In 1928, he finished the work, based on an atlas from Argentina [#6], and the IAU accepted his delimitations [#4].
    
    These "constellations" are naked areas in the sky without any stick figures or depictions [#1]. The borders simply follow the lines of right ascension and declination from the epoch 1875.0. Precession causes a slowly increasing deviation from the originally rectilinear grid. These constellations became the standard way to describe the sky, replacing similar sets in other sky cultures exhaustively in daily usage.
    
    #### Constellation Figures
    
    In star maps it is common to mark line "patterns" that represent the shapes that give the name to the constellations. However, the IAU defines a constellation by its boundary (indicated by sky coordinates) and not by its pattern and the same constellation may have several variants in its representation.
    
    This sky culture uses constellation figures were produced in collaboration with "Sky and Telescope" magazine (Roger Sinnott and Rick Fienberg) and published at IAU official website [#1]. Alan MacRobert's constellation patterns, were influenced by those of H. A. Rey but in many cases were adjusted to preserve earlier traditions.
    
    ### Proper names of stars
    
    Ptolemy's star catalogue had the layout of a table listing the description of the star's position in the constellation's figure, the ecliptical coordinates, and the magnitude e.g.: "The star at the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor", "Gem 0 1/6, +66", "Mag 3".
    
    In most cases, the star names evolved by astronomer's systematical abbreviations of these descriptions, e.g., a first astronomer abbreviated in a text "tip of the tail", a next astronomer drew a map with less space and wrote only "tail" next to the star and this name remained. Over centuries, these descriptions were translated into Arabic and Latin, and in some cases the translators or scribes made mistakes because of misreading or misspelling of the Arabic words (e.g. the Arabic "yad al gauza", the hand of the giant woman, was mangled to the common term "Betelgeuse").
    
    However, there are also a few original Greek words like the red star "Antares", the counterpart of Ares (Mars), and even a few original Babylonian terms like "Shargaz", the Sting, in Scorpius. Our modern, most recent IAU star names [#7] are a renewed mixture, also with influences or even politically wanted additions of star names from the non-Ptolemaic sky cultures, e.g. the traditional Pingsing, a Chinese star name for a star in Hydra (its meaning is only "star", a reminescence to his lonely position), or newly adopted star names from Polynesian, Hawaiian, or Aboriginal cultures for names of stars with exoplanets.
    
    The IAU is the only scientifically accepted authority to assign new names to stars. Commercial exploits like "star name registries", who sell stars for commemorative purposes or as gifts, only sell printed pieces of paper. These names are not approved and never used by scientists.
    
    ### Proper names of deep-sky objects
    
    Uranometria 2000.0 is an atlas of the 2000.0 era starry sky prepared by the Dutch artist Wil Tirion and published in 1987 by the American publishing house Willmann-Bell, specialising in astronomical literature.
    
    The Atlas of Tirion, respected by astronomers for its accuracy and beauty, is provided with detailed tables and various indexes. The second volume contains three transparent overlays designed for precise measurements. Uranometria 2000.0 contains more than 280,000 stars and more than 30,000 deep-sky objects - in particular, all the objects of the Messier and NGC catalogues.
    
    The second (corrected and most complete) three-volume edition of "Uranometria 2000.0", was published in 2001 under the name "Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas" and contains 280035 stars of both hemispheres up to 9.75<sup>m</sup> in size on a scale of 1.85 cm per declination degree on 220 spreads of A3 format. Particular attention in the atlas is paid to deep-sky objects, there are more than 30 thousand of them in the second edition - many times more than in any other paper atlas.
    
    The third volume of "Uranometria 2000.0" is a guide to deep-sky objects - Deep Sky Field Guide, consisting of tables with scientific data and proper names on objects depicted in the first two volumes [#3].

note: Modern (H.A. Rey) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: <img src="illustrations/Rey_cover.png" width="150" align="right"/> H. A. Rey (Hans Augusto Reyersbach) (1898-1977), an artist and author of children's books of German descent but emigrated to the USA, published his answer to this problem in 1952 with the book *The Stars - A New Way To See Them*[#1][#2].
    
    ### The Constellations
    
    In this book, which has become very popular especially in the US, Rey connected the stars of every constellation "in such a way that the resulting shape makes sense." What surprised him was "that nobody has done it before. The basic idea is so simple."
    
    Rey's new stick figures make it indeed very simple to recognize the depicted constellation figures. Rey's work does not include figurative artwork, therefore this sky culture deliberately only comes with Rey's original stick figures. The constellation names were also always given in English by Rey. If you switch to "Native" name display mode, you may see exactly the spelling used in his book. Also the stars named here are limited to those included in the book.
    
    ### Rey's Figures and the Classic Constellations
    
    Rey's constellations adhere to the tradition of the Western sky culture and describes the 88 officially acknowledged constellations, with addition of asterisms of the two Dippers and the "Great Square" (of Pegasus). However, at several points Rey's figures deviate from the canonical figures described since Ptolemy's Almagest (2nd century AD), where also positions of the stars in their constellations had been described in their names. For example,
    
     - Rey inverted the figure of the Great Bear (*Ursa Major*) to look like a polar bear scenting prey. This on one hand does not have the usual problem to explain its long tail. On the other hand, the bear is not shown to walk around the pole in this orientation.
     - The Bull (*Taurus*), only the front of which is shown with long upright horns in usual depictions, is shown with a complete body including its tail, with horns stretched wide like those of a buffalo. Its bright eye *Aldebaran* now lies in its neck.
     - The head of *Hercules* is usually next to the head of *Ophiuchus*, the serpent holder, and the four stars known as "keystone" form his body. Rey makes his head out of the keystone, and the star that usually marks the hero's head is now one of his feet.
     - The Whale (*Cetus*) has been turned around, its former mouth now forming a tail fin.
     - *Pegasus* exchanged feet and head.
     - *Bootes*, the herdsman, is shown sitting and smoking a pipe (no trace of political correctness in a children's book of the 1950s... :-)
    
    ### External links
    
     - [H.A.Rey (Wikipedia)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._A._Rey)
en_AU: <img src="illustrations/Rey_cover.png" width="150" align="right"/> H. A. Rey (Hans Augusto Reyersbach) (1898-1977), an artist and author of children's books of German descent but emigrated to the USA, published his answer to this problem in 1952 with the book *The Stars - A New Way To See Them*[#1][#2].
    
    ### The Constellations
    
    In this book, which has become very popular especially in the US, Rey connected the stars of every constellation "in such a way that the resulting shape makes sense." What surprised him was "that nobody has done it before. The basic idea is so simple."
    
    Rey's new stick figures make it indeed very simple to recognise the depicted constellation figures. Rey's work does not include figurative artwork, therefore this sky culture deliberately only comes with Rey's original stick figures. The constellation names were also always given in English by Rey. If you switch to "Native" name display mode, you may see exactly the spelling used in his book. Also the stars named here are limited to those included in the book.
    
    ### Rey's Figures and the Classic Constellations
    
    Rey's constellations adhere to the tradition of the Western sky culture and describes the 88 officially acknowledged constellations, with addition of asterisms of the two Dippers and the "Great Square" (of Pegasus). However, at several points Rey's figures deviate from the canonical figures described since Ptolemy's Almagest (2nd century AD), where also positions of the stars in their constellations had been described in their names. For example,
    
     - Rey inverted the figure of the Great Bear (*Ursa Major*) to look like a polar bear scenting prey. This on one hand does not have the usual problem to explain its long tail. On the other hand, the bear is not shown to walk around the pole in this orientation.
     - The Bull (*Taurus*), only the front of which is shown with long upright horns in usual depictions, is shown with a complete body including its tail, with horns stretched wide like those of a buffalo. Its bright eye *Aldebaran* now lies in its neck.
     - The head of *Hercules* is usually next to the head of *Ophiuchus*, the serpent holder, and the four stars known as "keystone" form his body. Rey makes his head out of the keystone, and the star that usually marks the hero's head is now one of his feet.
     - The Whale (*Cetus*) has been turned around, its former mouth now forming a tail fin.
     - *Pegasus* exchanged feet and head.
     - *Bootes*, the herdsman, is shown sitting and smoking a pipe (no trace of political correctness in a children's book of the 1950s... :-)
    
    ### External links
    
     - [H.A.Rey (Wikipedia)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._A._Rey)

note: Modern (Sternenkarten) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: ### Division of the sky
    
    In 1922 the International Astronomical Union began to define this standard more precisely. 88 constellations were selected that covered the entire sky. The names and the boundaries of the 88 constellations were made binding, but not the historically created shapes of the constellations themselves.
    
    ### From image to constellation
    
    Greek mythology is rich in stories about gods and heroes. These stories have not been forgotten until today, among other things through the works of Hesiod and Homer. Atlases were created that showed the starry sky, illustrated with figures from Greek mythology. The stars in these figures were connected by lines, creating constellations. It was clear what these constellations were supposed to represent. But if you looked at the lines alone without the corresponding figures, the connection to the constellation was often no longer immediately understandable
    
    ### The stars, a new way to see them
    
    The children's book author H. A. Rey recognized this dilemma. He wondered why it had never occurred to anyone to draw the constellations so, that their shape made sense. He connected stars with lines and thus painted his own constellations. These constellations were intuitively recognizable, because the constellation lines themselves painted the images. H. A. Rey published his work under the title "The Stars. A New Way To See Them".
    
    ### The sky culture sternenkarten.com
    
    The sky culture sternenkarten.com is based on the idea of H. A. Rey to paint constellations in such a way, that they can be recognized intuitively. Some of the constellations, it contains, are more or less similar to those of H. A. Rey, others are based on the western standard sky culture. And still others have been completely redesigned.
    
    As far as possible, the following points have been implemented
    
     - Clear simple shapes
     - Intuitive recognizability
     - Recognizing is more important than the inclusion of many stars
     - Fainter stars are not considered because of the light pollution in the modern world
     - Triangles are easy to spot. That is why the characters wear triangular hats
    
    The following special features were built into the constellation culture:
    
     - The constellation Lynx uses a star from the constellation Great Bear
     - The constellation Snake is not divided into two parts. A complete snake is drawn
     - The star Alpheratz belongs to both the constellation Pegasus and the constellation Andromeda
    
    ### History of the sky culture sternenkarten.com
    
     - 2015: Photographing the night sky that can be seen from Germany.
     - 2015: Development of the sky culture sternenkarten.com
     - 2015: Drawing the constellations in the photos
     - 2016: Publication of the sky culture on the Internet
     - 2020: Adding to Kstars
     - 2021: Expanding with the constellations of the southern hemisphere
    
    Documentation: [Meine kleinen Sternenkarten](https://sternenkarten.com/die-sternbilder/)
en_AU: ### Division of the sky
    
    In 1922 the International Astronomical Union began to define this standard more precisely. 88 constellations were selected that covered the entire sky. The names and the boundaries of the 88 constellations were made binding, but not the historically created shapes of the constellations themselves.
    
    ### From image to constellation
    
    Greek mythology is rich in stories about gods and heroes. These stories have not been forgotten until today, among other things through the works of Hesiod and Homer. Atlases were created that showed the starry sky, illustrated with figures from Greek mythology. The stars in these figures were connected by lines, creating constellations. It was clear what these constellations were supposed to represent. But if you looked at the lines alone without the corresponding figures, the connection to the constellation was often no longer immediately understandable
    
    ### The stars, a new way to see them
    
    The children's book author H. A. Rey recognised this dilemma. He wondered why it had never occurred to anyone to draw the constellations so, that their shape made sense. He connected stars with lines and thus painted his own constellations. These constellations were intuitively recognisable, because the constellation lines themselves painted the images. H. A. Rey published his work under the title "The Stars. A New Way To See Them".
    
    ### The sky culture sternenkarten.com
    
    The sky culture sternenkarten.com is based on the idea of H. A. Rey to paint constellations in such a way, that they can be recognised intuitively. Some of the constellations, it contains, are more or less similar to those of H. A. Rey, others are based on the western standard sky culture. And still others have been completely redesigned.
    
    As far as possible, the following points have been implemented
    
     - Clear simple shapes
     - Intuitive recognisability
     - Recognising is more important than the inclusion of many stars
     - Fainter stars are not considered because of the light pollution in the modern world
     - Triangles are easy to spot. That is why the characters wear triangular hats
    
    The following special features were built into the constellation culture:
    
     - The constellation Lynx uses a star from the constellation Great Bear
     - The constellation Snake is not divided into two parts. A complete snake is drawn
     - The star Alpheratz belongs to both the constellation Pegasus and the constellation Andromeda
    
    ### History of the sky culture sternenkarten.com
    
     - 2015: Photographing the night sky that can be seen from Germany.
     - 2015: Development of the sky culture sternenkarten.com
     - 2015: Drawing the constellations in the photos
     - 2016: Publication of the sky culture on the Internet
     - 2020: Adding to Kstars
     - 2021: Expanding with the constellations of the southern hemisphere
    
    Documentation: [Meine kleinen Sternenkarten](https://sternenkarten.com/die-sternbilder/)

note: Modern (Sternenkarten) sky culture references section in markdown format
en:  - [#1]: Kunitzsch, P.; Smart T. (2006). "A Dictionary of Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their Derivations" (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Sky Pub. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
     - [#2]: Allen, R. H. (1963). "Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning" (rep. ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
     - [#3]: [2000, A&AS, 143, 9, "The SIMBAD astronomical database", Wenger et al.](http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000A%26AS..143....9W)
     - [#4]: [Final Results of NameExoWorlds Public Vote Released](http://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau1514/)
     - [#5]: [STARS by Jim Kaler, Prof. Emeritus of Astronomy, University of Illinois](http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sowlist.html)
     - [#6]: [IAU Catalog of Star Names (IAU-CSN)](http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/WGSN/IAU-CSN.txt)
     - [#7]: [Covington, Michael (2002). "Celestial Objects for Modern Telescopes: Practical Amateur Astronomy". Cambridge University Press.](https://books.google.com/books?id=ql7wLq1fP5QC&pg=PA209)
     - [#8]: ["61 Cyg (Piazzi's Flying Star)". Science&Space News. Retrieved June 1, 2015.](http://news.sky-map.org/starview?object_type=1&object_id=2282&object_name=HD+201091&locale=EN)
     - [#9]: [Kruger 60](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruger_60)
     - [#10]: [List of Named Stars in Alphabetical Order](http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/starname_list.html)
     - [#11]: [Jack W. Rhoads (1971). "Reduced Star Catalog Containing 537 Named Stars", Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology; November 15, 1971](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19720005197)
     - [#12]: [IAU Naming Stars](https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming_stars/)
     - [#13]: [Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed. (Hoffleit+, 1991)](http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR?-source=V/50)
     - [#14]: Piazzi, G, ed. (1814). "Praecipuarum Stellarum Inerrantium Positiones Mediae Ineunte Saeculo XIX: ex Observationibus Habitis in Specula Panormitana ab anno 1792 ad annum 1813". Palermo. p. 21.
     - [#15]: Kunitzsch, P. (1959). "Arabische Sternnamen in Europa". Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 155.
     - [#16]: Laffitte, R. (2005). "Héritages arabes: Des noms arabes pour les étoiles" (2éme revue et corrigée ed.). Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geunthner / Les Cahiers de l'Orient. p. 229.
     - [#17]: Burritt, E. H. (1835). "Atlas, Designed to Illustrate the Geography of the Heavens" (new ed.). New York: F. J. Huntington. plate III.
     - [#18]: Burnham, Robert Jr. (1978, 1979). "Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System", Vol. 1, 2, 3. NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486235677, 978-0486235684, 978-0486236735
     - [#19]: [Iota Ursae Majoris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_Ursae_Majoris)
     - [#20]: [Falkner, David E. (2011). "The Mythology of the Night Sky: An Amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Ancient Greek and Roman Legends", Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy, Springer. ISBN 1-4614-0136-4](https://books.google.com/books?id=tyj8UUE968wC)
     - [#21]: Peters, C. A. F. (1853). "On the Parallax of Argelander's Star". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 14, p.49. DOI: 10.1093/mnras/14.2.49
     - [#22]: Maddocks, Hugh C. (1991). "Deep-Sky Name Index 2000.0". Foxon-Maddocks Associates. ISBN 0-9628305-0-X.
     - [#23]: Josef Klepesta, Antonin Rukl (1977). "Constellations: A concise guide in colour". ISBN 0600008932.
     - [#24]: Oswald Thomas (1945). "Atlas der Sternbilder". Salzburg.
     - [#25]: Fred Schaaf (2019). "An Assortment of Asterisms". Sky & Telescope, p.45 (Nov 2019)
     - [#26]: Gary Seronik (2017). "Binocular Highlights Revised & Expanded: 109 Celestial Sights for Binocular Users". F W Publications Inc. ISBN 9781940038445
     - [#27]: Tony Flanders (2019). "Constellation Close-up: Centaurus and Crux". Sky & Telescope, pp.22-27 (Apr 2019).
     - [#28]: Sue French (2019). "Deep-Sky Wonders: Heavenly Hero". Sky & Telescope, pp.54-56 (Jul 2019).
     - [#29]: [Software Bisque: A Complete List of Asterisms](https://www.bisque.com/tom/asterisms/list.asp)
     - [#30]: [University of Northern Iowa, EARTHSCI 1100 - Astronomy, Asterisms.](https://sites.uni.edu/morgans/astro/asterisms.html)
     - [#31]: [Horvatin - Obsolete Constellations, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University.](https://web.pa.msu.edu/people/horvatin/Astronomy_Facts/obsolete_pages/triangulum_minor.htm)
     - [#32]: [Donald H. Menzel (1964). A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets by Donald H. Menzel, Collins books - St. James's Place, London. ISBN: 0395934311, ISBN13: 9780395934319](http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/menzel-fieldguide.pdf)
     - [#33]: [James B. (Jim) Kaler. Professor Emeritus of Astronomy, University of Illinois.](http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/6tri.html)
     - [#34]: [Astronomy Club of Tulsa - Observer, December 2008.](http://www.astrotulsa.com/cms_files/200812.pdf)
     - [#35]: [Baylor University, School of Engineering and Computer Science, Astronomy observing log.](http://cs.baylor.edu/~hamerly/personal/astro/log.html)
     - [#36]: [IAU100 NameExoWorlds](http://nameexoworlds.iau.org/)
     - [#37]: [The Washington Double Star Catalog (Mason+ 2001-2020)](https://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR?-source=B/wds)
     - [#38]: [Patrick Moore, Paul Doherty, H. J. P. Arnold, The Photographic Atlas of the Stars, CRC Press LLC, 1999. ISBN 0750306548](https://books.google.com/books?id=YjcvJUfnWBAC&pg=PA97#v=onepage&q&f=false)
en_AU:  - [#1]: Kunitzsch, P.; Smart T. (2006). "A Dictionary of Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their Derivations" (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Sky Pub. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
     - [#2]: Allen, R. H. (1963). "Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning" (rep. ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
     - [#3]: [2000, A&AS, 143, 9, "The SIMBAD astronomical database", Wenger et al.](http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000A%26AS..143....9W)
     - [#4]: [Final Results of NameExoWorlds Public Vote Released](http://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau1514/)
     - [#5]: [STARS by Jim Kaler, Prof. Emeritus of Astronomy, University of Illinois](http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sowlist.html)
     - [#6]: [IAU Catalogue of Star Names (IAU-CSN)](http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/WGSN/IAU-CSN.txt)
     - [#7]: [Covington, Michael (2002). "Celestial Objects for Modern Telescopes: Practical Amateur Astronomy". Cambridge University Press.](https://books.google.com/books?id=ql7wLq1fP5QC&pg=PA209)
     - [#8]: ["61 Cyg (Piazzi's Flying Star)". Science&Space News. Retrieved June 1, 2015.](http://news.sky-map.org/starview?object_type=1&object_id=2282&object_name=HD+201091&locale=EN)
     - [#9]: [Kruger 60](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruger_60)
     - [#10]: [List of Named Stars in Alphabetical Order](http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/starname_list.html)
     - [#11]: [Jack W. Rhoads (1971). "Reduced Star Catalog Containing 537 Named Stars", Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology; November 15, 1971](https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19720005197)
     - [#12]: [IAU Naming Stars](https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming_stars/)
     - [#13]: [Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed. (Hoffleit+, 1991)](http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR?-source=V/50)
     - [#14]: Piazzi, G, ed. (1814). "Praecipuarum Stellarum Inerrantium Positiones Mediae Ineunte Saeculo XIX: ex Observationibus Habitis in Specula Panormitana ab anno 1792 ad annum 1813". Palermo. p. 21.
     - [#15]: Kunitzsch, P. (1959). "Arabische Sternnamen in Europa". Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 155.
     - [#16]: Laffitte, R. (2005). "Héritages arabes: Des noms arabes pour les étoiles" (2éme revue et corrigée ed.). Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geunthner / Les Cahiers de l'Orient. p. 229.
     - [#17]: Burritt, E. H. (1835). "Atlas, Designed to Illustrate the Geography of the Heavens" (new ed.). New York: F. J. Huntington. plate III.
     - [#18]: Burnham, Robert Jr. (1978, 1979). "Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System", Vol. 1, 2, 3. NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486235677, 978-0486235684, 978-0486236735
     - [#19]: [Iota Ursae Majoris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_Ursae_Majoris)
     - [#20]: [Falkner, David E. (2011). "The Mythology of the Night Sky: An Amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Ancient Greek and Roman Legends", Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy, Springer. ISBN 1-4614-0136-4](https://books.google.com/books?id=tyj8UUE968wC)
     - [#21]: Peters, C. A. F. (1853). "On the Parallax of Argelander's Star". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 14, p.49. DOI: 10.1093/mnras/14.2.49
     - [#22]: Maddocks, Hugh C. (1991). "Deep-Sky Name Index 2000.0". Foxon-Maddocks Associates. ISBN 0-9628305-0-X.
     - [#23]: Josef Klepesta, Antonin Rukl (1977). "Constellations: A concise guide in colour". ISBN 0600008932.
     - [#24]: Oswald Thomas (1945). "Atlas der Sternbilder". Salzburg.
     - [#25]: Fred Schaaf (2019). "An Assortment of Asterisms". Sky & Telescope, p.45 (Nov 2019)
     - [#26]: Gary Seronik (2017). "Binocular Highlights Revised & Expanded: 109 Celestial Sights for Binocular Users". F W Publications Inc. ISBN 9781940038445
     - [#27]: Tony Flanders (2019). "Constellation Close-up: Centaurus and Crux". Sky & Telescope, pp.22-27 (Apr 2019).
     - [#28]: Sue French (2019). "Deep-Sky Wonders: Heavenly Hero". Sky & Telescope, pp.54-56 (Jul 2019).
     - [#29]: [Software Bisque: A Complete List of Asterisms](https://www.bisque.com/tom/asterisms/list.asp)
     - [#30]: [University of Northern Iowa, EARTHSCI 1100 - Astronomy, Asterisms.](https://sites.uni.edu/morgans/astro/asterisms.html)
     - [#31]: [Horvatin - Obsolete Constellations, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University.](https://web.pa.msu.edu/people/horvatin/Astronomy_Facts/obsolete_pages/triangulum_minor.htm)
     - [#32]: [Donald H. Menzel (1964). A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets by Donald H. Menzel, Collins books - St. James's Place, London. ISBN: 0395934311, ISBN13: 9780395934319](http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/menzel-fieldguide.pdf)
     - [#33]: [James B. (Jim) Kaler. Professor Emeritus of Astronomy, University of Illinois.](http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/6tri.html)
     - [#34]: [Astronomy Club of Tulsa - Observer, December 2008.](http://www.astrotulsa.com/cms_files/200812.pdf)
     - [#35]: [Baylor University, School of Engineering and Computer Science, Astronomy observing log.](http://cs.baylor.edu/~hamerly/personal/astro/log.html)
     - [#36]: [IAU100 NameExoWorlds](http://nameexoworlds.iau.org/)
     - [#37]: [The Washington Double Star Catalog (Mason+ 2001-2020)](https://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR?-source=B/wds)
     - [#38]: [Patrick Moore, Paul Doherty, H. J. P. Arnold, The Photographic Atlas of the Stars, CRC Press LLC, 1999. ISBN 0750306548](https://books.google.com/books?id=YjcvJUfnWBAC&pg=PA97#v=onepage&q&f=false)

note: Northern Andes sky culture authors section in markdown format
en: These constellations, asterisms and measurements are part of **the legacy of Ancestral Knowledge** protected and compiled by the **Clan Quinatoa, guardians of the millenary knowledge of the Lundauco Valley in Imbabura - Ecuador**
    .
    The astral information is based on the study of Andrés Alejandro Ayala Quinatoa in "Millenary Astronomy, what my teachers and ancestors taught me"; Servio Jr. Paladines collaborates for the computer integration.
    
    The present illustrations are inspired by the pre-Hispanic designs of the Pasto nation investigated by Estelina Quinatoa for the book "Ancestral Representations and Colors of the Cosmos" (Ministry of Culture and Heritage of Ecuador).
en_AU: These constellations, asterisms and measurements are part of **the legacy of Ancestral Knowledge** protected and compiled by the **Clan Quinatoa, guardians of the millenary knowledge of the Lundauco Valley in Imbabura - Ecuador**
    .
    The astral information is based on the study of Andrés Alejandro Ayala Quinatoa in "Millenary Astronomy, what my teachers and ancestors taught me"; Servio Jr. Paladines collaborates for the computer integration.
    
    The present illustrations are inspired by the pre-Hispanic designs of the Pasto nation investigated by Estelina Quinatoa for the book "Ancestral Representations and Colours of the Cosmos" (Ministry of Culture and Heritage of Ecuador).

note: Tikuna sky culture introduction section in markdown format
en: The Tikuna indigenous people have inhabited the region of the Upper Solimões river for the past 2,000 years. They currently occupy a territory where the political borders of three countries converge: Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. This is the reason why the Tikuna recognize themselves as a differentiated indigenous group, while also identifying with the national identities related to these three countries.
en_AU: The Tikuna indigenous people have inhabited the region of the Upper Solimões river for the past 2,000 years. They currently occupy a territory where the political borders of three countries converge: Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. This is the reason why the Tikuna recognise themselves as a differentiated indigenous group, while also identifying with the national identities related to these three countries.

note: Tikuna sky culture description section in markdown format
en: Tikuna territory encompasses a region 600 kilometers long, running west to east from the Chimbote region in Peru—along the emptiness of the Amazonas-Solimões valley, in the so-called Trapézio Amazônico (Colombian Amazonian Trapezoid)—to the Barreira da Missão region, in the municipality of Tefé, in the Brazilian state of Amazonas (See The Ticuna Atlas, Figure I).
    
     <img src="illustrations/Atlas_das_terras_Tikuna.png" width="753" height="453" />
    
     <em>Figure 1: The Tikuna Atlas<cite id="cit1a">[**<sup>1</sup>**](#cit1)</cite> </em>
    
    The agencies and researchers that deal with them estimate that more than 53,544 (Siasi/Sesai, 2014) Tikunas live in Brazil (FUNASA, 2009), 8.000 in Colombia (Goulard, 2010), and 6.982 in Peru (INEL, 2007)<cite id="cit2a">[**<sup>2</sup>**](#cit2)</cite>. Together, they constitute the largest Amazonian indigenous population. Aside from their own Tikuna language, they also speak Spanish and Portuguese, depending on whether they live in Colombia and Peru or in Brazil.
    
    The Tikuna live in riverside villages along the Amazonas-Solimões and its tributaries, called igarapés. Their daily life revolve around the cultivation cycles of different agricultural goods; specially, manioc, used to produce the flour the Tikuna sell in the markets of the region’s main cities. They are also fishers, hunters, and gatherers of the forest products. The women make hammocks, bags, and other objects with plant fibers; and the men paint on tururi fiber and fabricate arrows, paddles, and canoes.
    
    It should be noted that, in Brazil, the Tikuna Indians live in indigenous lands recognized by Brazil’s indigenous policy. They are located in “terrestrial islands” among non-indigenous territories occupied by the Brazilian Population, from Tabatinga to Manaus (as illustrated in the Brazilian Tikuna Atlas).
    
    ### The Astronomical Correlations
    
    The movements of the Tikuna constellations correspond to an interpretation of the seasonality of rainfall, as the Tikuna narratives suggest. These constellations are related to myths referencing the ascension and fall of Wücütcha (a heavenly beast related to the Jaguar Clan), Coyatchicüra (Caiman’s Jaw) and Baweta (Tracajá, the Aquatic Turtle Collective), the Anteater’s fight with the Jaguar, and the Way of the Tapir.
    
    According to the testimony of the Tikuna indigenous people, Baweta (the Pleiades Star Cluster) appears in the eastern sky towards the end of November, at nightfall. After Baweta rises, Caiman’s Jaw rises. Wücütcha’s leg corresponds to a portion of The Orion Constellation; and it begins to disappear from the western sky around the 20th of May, at nightfall. About one month earlier, the Caiman’s Jaw, corresponding to The Hyades Star Cluster in Taurus, also disappears to the West.
    
    According to Vieira’s interpretation, the form of Baweta (the Turtle Collective) is associated with the stars within the asterisms of the Pleiades and of Perseus. Baweta’s eyes are the feet of Perseus (Omicron Persei - Atik and ζ (Zeta) Persei). The “V” shape that Western astronomy relates to the head of Taurus is called Coyatchicüra (Caiman’s Jaw). Wücütcha’s Leg corresponds to the stars that groups as Orion. Its toes are Orion’s Belt and the bend of the legs are ι (iota) Orionis; κ (kappa) Orionis; η (eta) Leporis and δ (delta) Leporis.
    
    During the summer, the fight between the Anteater (Tchatü) and the Jaguar (Ai) occurs. The end of the battle coincides with the death and ascension of Wücütcha. The eyes of the Anteater are located in β (beta) of Triangulum Australe; his claw and body is in the constellations Norma and Ara. The right foot of the Jaguar is in Scorpio’s α (Antares), σ (Sigma), and τ (tau); its eyes are in ε (epsilon) and μ (mu) Scorpii; and its left paw is in λ (Shaula), υ (upsilon Sco – Lesath) and κ (kappa) of the same constellation. Wücütcha (the Jaguar’s leg) represents the beginning of the rains in late September; and its reappearance to the east follows the setting of Tchatü in the west, at nightfall, in the end of November. Those correlations are illuminated by indigenous testimony reproduced below:
    
    > “The stars fit into their respective constellations. First is Wücütcha. After winter, summer begins to walk. It is the Jaguar. After him, comes Coyathicüra in the month of May, at nightfall, when the Caiman’s Jaw appears on the beach. Baweta appears in September, the month of the turtle. In May, Wücütcha and Coyatchicüra fall. They all fall together at the end of May. In July, they come again. Baweta already begins to appear in July. When Wücütcha falls, beginning in May, caimans and turtles begin to appear. The apex is in September.”
    >
    > “In May, all the constellations fall, together with their planets. It is summertime. Later, in July, they appear again for the New Year. Coya and Wücütcha leave the sky from May to September. Later, in July, they appear again.”
    >
    > Fernando Marques or Ütchancu – translated by Lucho
    
    The Tikuna interpret processes affected by a succession of meteorological changes that, in turn, determine the rainy and the dry seasons. In this region of Western Amazon, the rainy season runs from December to March and the dry season from June to September. During April, May, October, and November the rainfall is intermediate. In November, the water level starts to rise and in late December the tides occur. During the month of May, the water level drops until September, the peak of the drought. The periods of El Niño imply a rain deficit, causing the extreme drought of the great river; during La Niña, the cooling of the Pacific increases the amount of water, causing dramatic tides and floods.
    
    Although dependent on weather variability, at the September Equinox the Tikuna observe how fog affects how they see in early morning; the Pleiades star cluster disappears on the morning horizon in early June and reappears in the evening, in late November. The goal of the Tikuna is to predict the intensity of the coming rains in order to negotiate with the entity Mawü, the “Master of Rain,” the effects of the floods on their subsistence activities.
    
    According to the explanations found in Enepü (a Tikuna community in the indigenous Land Eware II, in the Brazilian State of Amazon, in Western Amazonia), the influence of seasonality upon Tikuna subsistence activities is more prevalent along the Solimões. In the headwaters of the igarapés, where Enepü is situated, plenty of food exists all year long. In Enepü, trees and palms, such as the ingá and açaí, are fertile all year long due to the “virginity” and the enrichment of the soil by natural compost. The same thing occurs with the fishing in Lake Preto, within the limits of Enepü, where they can supply themselves abundantly with fish all year long. On the Solimões, however, one finds fish only from April to July, when the water level drops. Abundance in the hunt is also from April to July (or September, at most), along the Solimões. Fishing becomes more difficult when the river is high. The fruit of the native açaí palm is collected in summer, and customarily saved for preparation during winter—time of poor hunting and fishing. Through planning and regular gardening, harvests are available all year long. The harvest of cultivated plants also occurs during the drought months. There is a certain degree of flexibility in adapting the agricultural calendar to the rainy season (when fishing and hunting are not productive) and the dry season, (when fishing is more abundant); however, difficulties involving navigation and transport grow as the water level drops along the igarapés linking the river. Traditional culture, however, is not prepared for unforeseen alterations in the rainy season, such as it occurred in 2002. In that year, July saw the beginning of the repiquete (the rise on water levels), which normally occurs in September. This destroyed the short-range agricultural cycle and made the fish scarcer, changing alimentary habits.
     <p id="cit1"><notr><a href="#cit1a"><B>1</B></a></notr><cite>This work adopts linguistic convention when writing Tikuna, even though several Anthropologists and Indigenous experts use the vernacular form (Ticuna).</cite></p>
    
     <p id="cit2"><notr><a href="#cit2a"><B>2</B></a></notr><cite> According to socioambiental.org, consulted on 08/05/2019.</cite></p>
en_AU: Tikuna territory encompasses a region 600 kilometres long, running west to east from the Chimbote region in Peru—along the emptiness of the Amazonas-Solimões valley, in the so-called Trapézio Amazônico (Colombian Amazonian Trapezoid)—to the Barreira da Missão region, in the municipality of Tefé, in the Brazilian state of Amazonas (See The Ticuna Atlas, Figure I).
    
     <img src="illustrations/Atlas_das_terras_Tikuna.png" width="753" height="453" />
    
     <em>Figure 1: The Tikuna Atlas<cite id="cit1a">[**<sup>1</sup>**](#cit1)</cite> </em>
    
    The agencies and researchers that deal with them estimate that more than 53,544 (Siasi/Sesai, 2014) Tikunas live in Brazil (FUNASA, 2009), 8.000 in Colombia (Goulard, 2010), and 6.982 in Peru (INEL, 2007)<cite id="cit2a">[**<sup>2</sup>**](#cit2)</cite>. Together, they constitute the largest Amazonian indigenous population. Aside from their own Tikuna language, they also speak Spanish and Portuguese, depending on whether they live in Colombia and Peru or in Brazil.
    
    The Tikuna live in riverside villages along the Amazonas-Solimões and its tributaries, called igarapés. Their daily life revolve around the cultivation cycles of different agricultural goods; specially, manioc, used to produce the flour the Tikuna sell in the markets of the region’s main cities. They are also fishers, hunters, and gatherers of the forest products. The women make hammocks, bags, and other objects with plant fibers; and the men paint on tururi fiber and fabricate arrows, paddles, and canoes.
    
    It should be noted that, in Brazil, the Tikuna Indians live in indigenous lands recognised by Brazil’s indigenous policy. They are located in “terrestrial islands” among non-indigenous territories occupied by the Brazilian Population, from Tabatinga to Manaus (as illustrated in the Brazilian Tikuna Atlas).
    
    ### The Astronomical Correlations
    
    The movements of the Tikuna constellations correspond to an interpretation of the seasonality of rainfall, as the Tikuna narratives suggest. These constellations are related to myths referencing the ascension and fall of Wücütcha (a heavenly beast related to the Jaguar Clan), Coyatchicüra (Caiman’s Jaw) and Baweta (Tracajá, the Aquatic Turtle Collective), the Anteater’s fight with the Jaguar, and the Way of the Tapir.
    
    According to the testimony of the Tikuna indigenous people, Baweta (the Pleiades Star Cluster) appears in the eastern sky towards the end of November, at nightfall. After Baweta rises, Caiman’s Jaw rises. Wücütcha’s leg corresponds to a portion of The Orion Constellation; and it begins to disappear from the western sky around the 20th of May, at nightfall. About one month earlier, the Caiman’s Jaw, corresponding to The Hyades Star Cluster in Taurus, also disappears to the West.
    
    According to Vieira’s interpretation, the form of Baweta (the Turtle Collective) is associated with the stars within the asterisms of the Pleiades and of Perseus. Baweta’s eyes are the feet of Perseus (Omicron Persei - Atik and ζ (Zeta) Persei). The “V” shape that Western astronomy relates to the head of Taurus is called Coyatchicüra (Caiman’s Jaw). Wücütcha’s Leg corresponds to the stars that groups as Orion. Its toes are Orion’s Belt and the bend of the legs are ι (iota) Orionis; κ (kappa) Orionis; η (eta) Leporis and δ (delta) Leporis.
    
    During the summer, the fight between the Anteater (Tchatü) and the Jaguar (Ai) occurs. The end of the battle coincides with the death and ascension of Wücütcha. The eyes of the Anteater are located in β (beta) of Triangulum Australe; his claw and body is in the constellations Norma and Ara. The right foot of the Jaguar is in Scorpio’s α (Antares), σ (Sigma), and τ (tau); its eyes are in ε (epsilon) and μ (mu) Scorpii; and its left paw is in λ (Shaula), υ (upsilon Sco – Lesath) and κ (kappa) of the same constellation. Wücütcha (the Jaguar’s leg) represents the beginning of the rains in late September; and its reappearance to the east follows the setting of Tchatü in the west, at nightfall, in the end of November. Those correlations are illuminated by indigenous testimony reproduced below:
    
    > “The stars fit into their respective constellations. First is Wücütcha. After winter, summer begins to walk. It is the Jaguar. After him, comes Coyathicüra in the month of May, at nightfall, when the Caiman’s Jaw appears on the beach. Baweta appears in September, the month of the turtle. In May, Wücütcha and Coyatchicüra fall. They all fall together at the end of May. In July, they come again. Baweta already begins to appear in July. When Wücütcha falls, beginning in May, caimans and turtles begin to appear. The apex is in September.”
    >
    > “In May, all the constellations fall, together with their planets. It is summertime. Later, in July, they appear again for the New Year. Coya and Wücütcha leave the sky from May to September. Later, in July, they appear again.”
    >
    > Fernando Marques or Ütchancu – translated by Lucho
    
    The Tikuna interpret processes affected by a succession of meteorological changes that, in turn, determine the rainy and the dry seasons. In this region of Western Amazon, the rainy season runs from December to March and the dry season from June to September. During April, May, October, and November the rainfall is intermediate. In November, the water level starts to rise and in late December the tides occur. During the month of May, the water level drops until September, the peak of the drought. The periods of El Niño imply a rain deficit, causing the extreme drought of the great river; during La Niña, the cooling of the Pacific increases the amount of water, causing dramatic tides and floods.
    
    Although dependent on weather variability, at the September Equinox the Tikuna observe how fog affects how they see in early morning; the Pleiades star cluster disappears on the morning horizon in early June and reappears in the evening, in late November. The goal of the Tikuna is to predict the intensity of the coming rains in order to negotiate with the entity Mawü, the “Master of Rain,” the effects of the floods on their subsistence activities.
    
    According to the explanations found in Enepü (a Tikuna community in the indigenous Land Eware II, in the Brazilian State of Amazon, in Western Amazonia), the influence of seasonality upon Tikuna subsistence activities is more prevalent along the Solimões. In the headwaters of the igarapés, where Enepü is situated, plenty of food exists all year long. In Enepü, trees and palms, such as the ingá and açaí, are fertile all year long due to the “virginity” and the enrichment of the soil by natural compost. The same thing occurs with the fishing in Lake Preto, within the limits of Enepü, where they can supply themselves abundantly with fish all year long. On the Solimões, however, one finds fish only from April to July, when the water level drops. Abundance in the hunt is also from April to July (or September, at most), along the Solimões. Fishing becomes more difficult when the river is high. The fruit of the native açaí palm is collected in summer, and customarily saved for preparation during winter—time of poor hunting and fishing. Through planning and regular gardening, harvests are available all year long. The harvest of cultivated plants also occurs during the drought months. There is a certain degree of flexibility in adapting the agricultural calendar to the rainy season (when fishing and hunting are not productive) and the dry season, (when fishing is more abundant); however, difficulties involving navigation and transport grow as the water level drops along the igarapés linking the river. Traditional culture, however, is not prepared for unforeseen alterations in the rainy season, such as it occurred in 2002. In that year, July saw the beginning of the repiquete (the rise on water levels), which normally occurs in September. This destroyed the short-range agricultural cycle and made the fish scarcer, changing alimentary habits.
     <p id="cit1"><notr><a href="#cit1a"><B>1</B></a></notr><cite>This work adopts linguistic convention when writing Tikuna, even though several Anthropologists and Indigenous experts use the vernacular form (Ticuna).</cite></p>
    
     <p id="cit2"><notr><a href="#cit2a"><B>2</B></a></notr><cite> According to socioambiental.org, consulted on 08/05/2019.</cite></p>

note: Vanuatu (Netwar) sky culture description section in markdown format
en: ### Solar system
    
    <ul> <li>Sun: Met</li> <li>Moon: Mawuk</li>
    
     - Waxing crescent: Mawuk wi - 'new Moon'
     - First quarter: Nail ratuatu - 'it stays straight', meaning that in the sky the Moon appears straight in the zenith in the evening
     - Full Moon: Mawuk ramépép malwia - 'the Moon is like the fish épép malwia' (Platax orbicularis); also Nati tawar - means that when the sun is setting, the Moon just appears above the mountains
     - Last quarter: Numanmel
     - Waning crescent: Numanmel
     - Lunar eclipse: Mawuk ramemes - 'dead Moon'
    
     <li>Venus:</li>
    
     - Morning star: Fétukai
     - Evening star: Kéwita
    
     <li>Jupiter: Karatéi</li> <li>Mahau ramiwuk: 'jumping star', bad omen foretelling someone's death</li> </ul>
    
    ### Stars
    
     - In general: Mahau
     - Aldebaran: Kapaumeta
    
    ### Constellations and deep-sky objects
    
    Note: the English names preceding the local names are here only to help the reader locate the particular constellation in the frame of the Western sky. The actual translations of the local names follow them.
    
     - LMC and SMC: Nowanuman - 'earth oven'
     - Milky Way: Nemrau - 'ash'; also Nuafuganan - less common term of unknown meaning
     - Orion's Belt: Kasulia apam - 'long yoke'
     - Orion's Sword: Kasulia rerparep - 'short yoke'
     - Taurus' Head: Kou - 'pincers used for taking hot stones out of the fire'
     - Scorpion's Dart: Kahaur rul - 'rat', seen in the evening in zenith when it is time to prepare gardens
     - Orion's Body: Kilil - 'traditional fan' made from palm leaves
     - Southern Cross: Suatu kywer - 'four customary ways' connecting four villages with a nakamal; it rises in the evening in March and symbolizes the time when in the nakamal people do temahwa for good harvest
     - Pleiades: Nowaswas Lapnuman - 'young boys of Lapnuman'; also Neperawen Lapnuman - 'young girls of Lapnuman'
    
    ### Names of objects with unknown position
    
     - Mowaimawuk - name of an unidentified star, said to be close to the Moon or to rise close to it
     - Iaiapom - name of an unidentified star (possibly Altair), which sets in the morning in time of preparation of gardens (July)
     - Koraiapom - name of an unidentified star (possibly Rigel), found in September in the morning near zenith
     - Kwankaio - name of an unidentified star (possibly Procyon), rising in February in the morning
en_AU: ### Solar system
    
    <ul> <li>Sun: Met</li> <li>Moon: Mawuk</li>
    
     - Waxing crescent: Mawuk wi - 'new Moon'
     - First quarter: Nail ratuatu - 'it stays straight', meaning that in the sky the Moon appears straight in the zenith in the evening
     - Full Moon: Mawuk ramépép malwia - 'the Moon is like the fish épép malwia' (Platax orbicularis); also Nati tawar - means that when the sun is setting, the Moon just appears above the mountains
     - Last quarter: Numanmel
     - Waning crescent: Numanmel
     - Lunar eclipse: Mawuk ramemes - 'dead Moon'
    
     <li>Venus:</li>
    
     - Morning star: Fétukai
     - Evening star: Kéwita
    
     <li>Jupiter: Karatéi</li> <li>Mahau ramiwuk: 'jumping star', bad omen foretelling someone's death</li> </ul>
    
    ### Stars
    
     - In general: Mahau
     - Aldebaran: Kapaumeta
    
    ### Constellations and deep-sky objects
    
    Note: the English names preceding the local names are here only to help the reader locate the particular constellation in the frame of the Western sky. The actual translations of the local names follow them.
    
     - LMC and SMC: Nowanuman - 'earth oven'
     - Milky Way: Nemrau - 'ash'; also Nuafuganan - less common term of unknown meaning
     - Orion's Belt: Kasulia apam - 'long yoke'
     - Orion's Sword: Kasulia rerparep - 'short yoke'
     - Taurus' Head: Kou - 'pincers used for taking hot stones out of the fire'
     - Scorpion's Dart: Kahaur rul - 'rat', seen in the evening in zenith when it is time to prepare gardens
     - Orion's Body: Kilil - 'traditional fan' made from palm leaves
     - Southern Cross: Suatu kywer - 'four customary ways' connecting four villages with a nakamal; it rises in the evening in March and symbolises the time when in the nakamal people do temahwa for good harvest
     - Pleiades: Nowaswas Lapnuman - 'young boys of Lapnuman'; also Neperawen Lapnuman - 'young girls of Lapnuman'
    
    ### Names of objects with unknown position
    
     - Mowaimawuk - name of an unidentified star, said to be close to the Moon or to rise close to it
     - Iaiapom - name of an unidentified star (possibly Altair), which sets in the morning in time of preparation of gardens (July)
     - Koraiapom - name of an unidentified star (possibly Rigel), found in September in the morning near zenith
     - Kwankaio - name of an unidentified star (possibly Procyon), rising in February in the morning
